Computerized three-dimensional segmented human anatomy

Manual segmentation of 129 x-ray CT transverse slices of a living male human has been done and a computerized 3-dimensional volume array modeling all major internal structures of the body has been created. Each voxel of the volume contains a index number designating it as belonging to a given organ or internal structure. The original x-ray CT images were reconstructed in a 512 x 512 matrix with a resolution of 1 mm in the x,y plane. The z-axis resolution is 1 cm from neck to midthigh and 0.5 cm from neck to crown of the head. This volume array represents a high resolution model of the human anatomy and can serve as a voxel-based anthropomorphic phantom suitable for many computer-based modeling and simulation calculations.

Dynamic mapping of the human visual cortex by high-speed magnetic resonance imaging

We report the use of high-speed magnetic resonance imaging to follow the changes in image intensity in the human visual cortex during stimulation by a flashing checkerboard stimulus. Measurements were made in a 2.1-T, 1-m-diameter magnet, part of a Bruker Biospec spectrometer that we had programmed to do echo-planar imaging. A 15-cm-diameter surface coil was used to transmit and receive signals. Images were acquired during periods of stimulation from 2 s to 180 s. Images were acquired in 65.5 ms in a 10-mm slice with in-plane voxel size of 6 x 3 mm. Repetition time (TR) was generally 2 s, although for the long flashing periods, TR = 8 s was used. Voxels were located onto an inversion recovery image taken with 2 x 2 mm in-plane resolution. Image intensity increased after onset of the stimulus. The mean change in signal relative to the prestimulation level (delta S/S) was 9.7% (SD = 2.8%, n = 20) with an echo time of 70 ms. Irrespective of the period of stimulation, the increase in magnetic resonance signal intensity was delayed relative to the stimulus. The mean delay measured from the start of stimulation for each protocol was as follows: 2-s stimulation, delay = 3.5 s (SD = 0.5 s, n = 10) (the delay exceeds stimulus duration); 20- to 24-s stimulation, delay = 5 s (SD = 2 s, n = 20).

Measurement of benzodiazepine receptor number and affinity in humans using tracer kinetic modeling, positron emission tomography, and [11C]flumazenil

Kinetic methods were used to obtain regional estimates of benzodiazepine receptor concentration (Bmax) and equilibrium dissociation constant (Kd) from high and low specific activity (SA) [11C]flumazenil ([11C] Ro 15-1788) positron emission tomography studies of five normal volunteers. The high and low SA data were simultaneously fit to linear and nonlinear three-compartment models, respectively. An additional inhibition study (pretreatment with 0.15 mg/kg of flumazenil) was performed on one of the volunteers, which resulted in an average gray matter K1/k2 estimate of 0.68 +/- 0.08 ml/ml (linear three-compartment model, nine brain regions). The free fraction of flumazenil in plasma (f1) was determined for each study (high SA f1: 0.50 +/- 0.03; low SA f1: 0.48 +/- 0.05). The free fraction in brain (f2) was calculated using the inhibition K1/k2 ratio and each volunteer's mean f1 value (f2 across volunteers = 0.72 +/- 0.03 ml/ml). Three methods (Methods I-III) were examined. Method I determined five kinetic parameters simultaneously [K1, k2, k3 (= konf2Bmax), k4, and konf2/SA] with no priori constraints. An average kon value of 0.030 +/- 0.003 nM-1 min-1 was estimated for receptor-rich regions using Method I. In Methods II and III, the konf2/SA parameter was specifically constrained using the Method I value of kon and the volunteer's values of f2 and low SA (Ci/mumol). Four parameters were determined simultaneously using Method II. In Method III, K1/k2 was fixed to the inhibition value and only three parameters were estimated. Method I provided the most variable results and convergence problems for regions with low receptor binding. Method II provided results that were less variable but very similar to the Method I results, without convergence problems. However, the K1/k2 ratios obtained by Method II ranged from 1.07 in the occipital cortex to 0.61 in the thalamus. Fixing the K1/k2 ratio in Method III provided a method that was physiologically consistent with the fixed value of f2 and resulted in parameters with considerably lower variability. The average Bmax values obtained using Method III were 100 +/- 25 nM in the occipital cortex, 64 +/- 18 nM in the cerebellum, and 38 +/- 5.5 nM in the thalamus; the average Kd was 8.9 +/- 1.0 nM (five brain regions).

SPECT quantification of [123I]iomazenil binding to benzodiazepine receptors in nonhuman primates: I. Kinetic modeling of single bolus experiments

The aim of this work was to study the feasibility and reproducibility of in vivo measurement of benzodiazepine receptors with single photon emission computerized tomography (SPECT) in the baboon brain. Arterial and brain regional activities were measured for 420 min in three baboons after single bolus injection of the benzodiazepine antagonist [123I]iomazenil. Data were fit to a three-compartment model to derive the regional binding potential (BP), which corresponds to the product of the receptor density, (Bmax) and affinity (1/KD). Regional BP values (from 114 in striatum to 241 in occipital) were in good agreement with values predicted from in vitro studies. Constraining the regional volume of distribution of the nondisplaceable compartment to the value measured during tracer constant infusion experiments in baboons (Laruelle et al., 1993) improved the identifiability of the rate constants. Each experiment was repeated to investigate the reproducibility of the measurement. The regional average reproducibility was 10 +/- 5%, expressed as coefficient of variation (CV). Results of equilibrium analysis at peak uptake were in good agreement with results of kinetic analysis. Empirical counts ratio methods were found to be poorly sensitive to benzodiazepine receptor density. These studies suggest the feasibility of quantitative measurement of benzodiazepine receptors by kinetic analysis of SPECT data and the inadequacy of empirical methods of analysis, such as counts ratios, to evaluate differences in receptor density.

Normal instability of the hip in the neonate: US standards

In recent years, the use of real-time ultrasonography (US) has enabled dynamic evaluation of the infant hip through a range of motion and stress. Preliminary experience has suggested that a certain amount of instability in the hips of newborns is normal, but no standards have been established. In this study, a group of term neonates whose physical examinations were normal were examined with US on the 1st and 2d days of life. Each hip was imaged in the transverse plane in nonstressed and stressed positions, and movement of the femoral head under stress was quantitated. This displacement under stress was used to establish a normal range of hip instability in neonates. Patterns of hip laxity in boys and girls are identical, and in most infants hip instability diminishes between the 1st and 2d days of life. Our method of quantitating hip instability produces consistent results, with intraobserver 95% confidence intervals of +/- 1.2 mm for each measurement.

Single photon emission tomography measurement of benzodiazepine receptor number and affinity in primate brain: a constant infusion paradigm with [123I]iomazenil

Benzodiazepine receptor number and affinity were measured in vivo with single photon emission tomography (SPECT). Following an initial bolus injection, the radiotracer [123I]iomazenil was infused at a constant rate for 5 to 8 h. This procedure induced a state of sustained equilibrium at the receptor level. Nondisplaceable activity was measured after injection of a receptor saturating dose of flumazenil. Experiments performed at high and low specific activity permitted estimation of an equilibrium binding affinity constant of 0.47 nM and a maximum binding capacity of 127 nM in occipital cortex.

SPECT measurement of benzodiazepine receptors in human brain with iodine-123-iomazenil: kinetic and equilibrium paradigms

Iodine-123-iomazenil binding to benzodiazepine receptors in human brain was measured with SPECT using kinetic and equilibrium methods.

METHODS

In the kinetic experiments (n = 6), regional time-activity curves after a single bolus injection of the tracer were fit to a three-compartment model to provide estimates of the rate constants K1 to k4. The binding potential (equal to the product of the receptor density and affinity) was derived from the rate constants. In the equilibrium method (n = 8), the tracer bolus injection was followed by a constant tracer infusion to induce a sustained equilibrium state. The regional equilibrium volume of distribution was calculated as the ratio of the regional brain concentration-to-the free parent tracer steady-state plasma concentration. In three experiments, a receptor-saturating dose of flumazenil was injected for direct measurement of the nondisplaceable compartment distribution volume.

RESULTS

The kinetic and equilibrium method results were in good agreement in all regions investigated. Iodine-125-iomazenil binding potential measured in vitro in 12 postmortem samples was found to be consistent with SPECT in vivo measurements.

CONCLUSION

These studies demonstrated the feasibility of quantification of receptor binding with SPECT.

Tc-99m HIDA dosimetry in patients with various hepatic disorders

The pharmacodynamics of Tc-99m dimethyliminodiacetic acid were studied for normal subjects and for patients with a variety of hepatobiliary disorders. It was determined that, in normal subjects, approximately 65% of the gallbladder agent bypassed the gallbladder and was excreted directly from the liver into the small intestine. This bypassing of the gallbladder was even higher in patients with cystic-duct or common-duct obstruction. The radiation burdens to the gallbladder wall and other critical organs were calculated using the dynamic data obtained from patients with a variety of gallbladder disease. The dose to the gallbladder wall was found to be significantly lower than previously reported. Gallbladder ejection and clearance characteristics when stimulated by food intake were studied for normal subjects. Dosimetry calculations demonstrated a fivefold reduction of absorbed dose to the gallbladder wall when the gallbladder was stimulated to contract using a fatty meal. Accordingly, a fatty meal is recommended for patients at the end of all gallbladder imaging studies.

Recent advances in pediatric musculoskeletal imaging

The current role of ultrasound, computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, and scintigraphy in the evaluation of pediatric musculoskeletal disorders is reviewed. Magnetic resonance imaging and ultrasound, which do not utilize ionizing radiation and, as far as is known, appear to have no deleterious biologic effects, are particularly valuable modalities in the pediatric population.