Covert and overt automatic imitation are correlated

Most theoretical accounts of imitation assume that covert and overt measures of automatic imitation tap into the same underlying construct. Despite this widespread assumption, it is not well supported by empirical evidence. In fact, the only study investigating the relation between covert and overt automatic imitation failed to find a correlation between them (Genschow et al., 2017, PLOS ONE, 12[9], Article e0183784). However, because overt and covert imitation were measured using two very different tasks, and because the measure of overt imitation was found to be unreliable, it is still not clear whether a correlation between both measures exists. Here, we address this question by reanalyzing the results of a previous virtual reality study in which automatic imitation was indexed with an overt and covert measure of gaze following, both obtained within one and the same task (Cracco et al., 2022, IScience, Article 104891). The results show that, in this situation, both types of imitation do correlate. As such, our results provide support for the idea that overt and covert measures of automatic imitation measure the same underlying construct.

Automatic imitation of speech is enhanced for non-native sounds

Simulation accounts of speech perception posit that speech is covertly imitated to support perception in a top-down manner. Behaviourally, covert imitation is measured through the stimulus-response compatibility (SRC) task. In each trial of a speech SRC task, participants produce a target speech sound whilst perceiving a speech distractor that either matches the target (compatible condition) or does not (incompatible condition). The degree to which the distractor is covertly imitated is captured by the automatic imitation effect, computed as the difference in response times (RTs) between compatible and incompatible trials. Simulation accounts disagree on whether covert imitation is enhanced when speech perception is challenging or instead when the speech signal is most familiar to the speaker. To test these accounts, we conducted three experiments in which participants completed SRC tasks with native and non-native sounds. Experiment 1 uncovered larger automatic imitation effects in an SRC task with non-native sounds than with native sounds. Experiment 2 replicated the finding online, demonstrating its robustness and the applicability of speech SRC tasks online. Experiment 3 intermixed native and non-native sounds within a single SRC task to disentangle effects of perceiving non-native sounds from confounding effects of producing non-native speech actions. This last experiment confirmed that automatic imitation is enhanced for non-native speech distractors, supporting a compensatory function of covert imitation in speech perception. The experiment also uncovered a separate effect of producing non-native speech actions on enhancing automatic imitation effects.

Empathic pain observation does not influence automatic imitation in an online setting

Previous research has shown that empathic pain observation can lead to motor facilitation in the form of faster reaction times. However, it is unclear whether participants are focusing on the others' pain or simply focusing on their own discomfort/distress (from watching the videos) during the task. This is an important issue as self- vs other-oriented focusing plays a key role in empathic processing. To address this issue, we combined empathic pain observation with the automatic imitation task (AIT). Previous work has shown that AIT effects are smaller after experiencing pain, which has been interpreted as the result of the experience of pain leading to a self-oriented focus. If empathic pain observation similarly leads to a self-oriented focus, then we should expect similar AIT results after pain observation (smaller AIT effects); however, if it instead leads to an other-oriented focus, then we should see the opposite (larger AIT effects). Although we found initial evidence for the latter hypothesis (Experiment 1), subsequent failed replications suggests that we do not have sufficient evidence to claim that pain observation influences automatic imitation one way or the other (Experiment 2 and 3). We discuss some possible reasons for finding null results in these experiments and suggest future avenues of research to better elucidate this topic.

Understanding Imitation in Papio papio: The Role of Experience and the Presence of a Conspecific Demonstrator

What factors affect imitation performance? Varying theories of imitation stress the role of experience, but few studies have explicitly tested its role in imitative learning in non-human primates. We tested several predictions regarding the role of experience, conspecific presence, and action compatibility using a stimulus-response compatibility protocol. Nineteen baboons separated into two experimental groups learned to respond by targeting on a touch screen the same stimulus as their neighbor (compatible) or the opposite stimulus (incompatible). They first performed the task with a conspecific demonstrator (social phase) and then a computer demonstrator (ghost phase). After reaching a predetermined success threshold, they were then tested in an opposite compatibility condition (i.e., reversal learning conditions). Seven baboons performed at least two reversals during the social phase, and we found no significant difference between the compatible and incompatible conditions, although we noticed slightly faster response times (RTs) in the compatible condition that disappeared after the first reversal. During the ghost phase, monkeys showed difficulties in learning the incompatible condition, and the compatible condition RTs tended to be slower than during the social phase. Together, these results suggest that (a) there is no strong movement compatibility effect in our task and that (b) the presence of a demonstrator plays a role in eliciting correct responses but is not essential as has been previously shown in human studies.

Model expertise does not influence automatic imitation

Social learning theories state that new skills can be learned by observing others. Automatic imitation is thought to play an important role in this process. However, whether imitation is beneficial to learning critically depends on the expertise of the imitated person. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the influence of model expertise on automatic imitation, by comparing automatic imitation of an expert and non-expert model in two within-subject experiments. In a first experiment (N = 61), we manipulated the perception of expertise in one task and tested how this influenced automatic imitation in a separate task. However, in contrast to our hypothesis, and in spite of a successful manipulation check, we did not find evidence for an effect of model expertise on imitative behavior. To exclude the alternative explanation that this was due to a lack of transfer of expertise attribution, we then conducted a second, preregistered experiment (N = 125), in which we manipulated model expertise using the same task also used to measure automatic imitation. However, in line with the results of Experiment 1, we found no evidence for an effect of model expertise on imitative behavior. These results put important constraints on the role of automatic imitation in motor learning.

Imitation and interindividual differences: Belief in free will is not related to automatic imitation

It is well known that individuals have the tendency to automatically imitate each other and that such imitative behavior is fostered by perceiving intentions in others' actions. That is, past research has shown that perceiving an action as internally driven enhances the shared representation of observed and executed actions increasing automatic imitation. An interpersonal factor that increases the perception that a behavior is internally driven is belief in free will. Consequently, we hypothesized that the more individuals believe in free will, the more they automatically imitate others. To test this prediction, we conducted two high-powered (total N = 642) and preregistered studies in which we assessed automatic imitation with the imitation-inhibition task. Contrary to our predictions, belief in free will did not correlate with automatic imitation. This finding contributes to current findings challenging the assumption that automatic imitation is modulated by interindividual differences. Further theoretical implications are discussed.

A direct test of the similarity assumption - Focusing on differences as compared with similarities decreases automatic imitation

Individuals automatically imitate a wide range of different behaviors. Previous research suggests that imitation as a social process depends on the similarity between interaction partners. However, some of the experiments supporting this notion could not be replicated and all of the supporting experiments manipulated not only similarity between actor and observer, but also other features. Thus, the existing evidence leaves open whether similarity as such moderates automatic imitation. To directly test the similarity account, in four experiments, we manipulated participants' focus on similarities or differences while holding the stimulus material constant. In Experiment 1, we presented participants with a hand and let them either focus on similarities, differences, or neutral aspects between their own hand and the other person's hand. The results indicate that focusing on similarities increased perceived similarity between the own and the other person's hand. In Experiments 2 to 4, we tested the hypothesis that focusing on similarities, as compared with differences, increases automatic imitation. Experiment 2 tested the basic effect and found support for our prediction. Experiment 3 and 4 replicated this finding with higher-powered samples. Exploratory investigations further suggest that it is a focus on differences that decreases automatic imitation, and not a focus on similarities that increases automatic imitation. Theoretical implications and future directions are discussed.

Interplay of self-other distinction and cognitive control mechanisms in a social automatic imitation task: An ERP study

The regulation of motor resonance processes in daily life is indispensable. The automatic imitation task is an experimental model of those daily-life motor resonance processes. Recent research suggests that both self-other distinction and cognitive control processes may be involved in interference control during automatic imitation. Yet, we lack a clear understanding of the chronological sequence of interacting processes. To this end, this study used event-related potentials (ERPs) to investigate the time course underlying interference control during automatic imitation. We moreover aimed to extend previous results by investigating its modulation by social context. Cognitive conflict/action monitoring was assessed with the N2, in an exploratory manner the N450, and the CRN components. The Pre-Motor Positivity (PMP), associated with movement initiation, was suggested as a possible correlate of the successful resolution of self-other distinction. The cognitive control/action monitoring ERP components were influenced by the social context manipulation and partly by congruency, while PMP amplitudes were only sensitive to congruency. In addition, the exploratorily investigated N450 component predicted response times on incongruent relative to congruent trials in the different social contexts. This suggested that cognitive control/action monitoring processes, reflected in the N450, are guiding behavioral outcomes. Overall, interference control may primarily be guided by processes of cognitive control/action monitoring, whilst being modulated by social context demands.

Automatic imitation is reduced in narcissists but only in egocentric perspective-takers

Narcissism is a prevalent personality trait associated with low concern for others and high self-focus. Congruently, reduced automatic imitation in narcissists was reported in one study (23 participants), but it was not replicated in another (57 participants). In this study, 100 participants completed the previously used narcissism and automatic imitation measures but here along with a visual perspective-taking task allowing to dissociate 4 profiles of perspective-takers. While we confirmed a non-replication at whole-sample level, we did find a reliable negative association between narcissism and automatic imitation among egocentric perspective-takers, that is, characterized as highly self-centered when tasked to adopt someone else's point of view. Our findings shed a new light on whether narcissistic individuals are less sensitive to others, highlight the importance of considering performance-based individual differences within the narcissistic personality, and revisit the recent claim that automatic imitation poorly relates to social functioning by presenting a theoretical framework that questions the sensitivity of the automatic imitation task.

Imitation or Polarity Correspondence? Behavioural and Neurophysiological Evidence for the Confounding Influence of Orthogonal Spatial Compatibility on Measures of Automatic Imitation

During social interactions, humans tend to imitate one another involuntarily. To investigate the neurocognitive mechanisms driving this tendency, researchers often employ stimulus-response compatibility (SRC) tasks to assess the influence that action observation has on action execution. This is referred to as automatic imitation (AI). The stimuli used frequently in SRC procedures to elicit AI often confound action-related with other nonsocial influences on behaviour; however, in response to the rotated hand-action stimuli employed increasingly, AI partly reflects unspecific up-right/down-left biases in stimulus-response mapping. Despite an emerging awareness of this confounding orthogonal spatial-compatibility effect, psychological and neuroscientific research into social behaviour continues to employ these stimuli to investigate AI. To increase recognition of this methodological issue, the present study measured the systematic influence of orthogonal spatial effects on behavioural and neurophysiological measures of AI acquired with rotated hand-action stimuli in SRC tasks. In Experiment 1, behavioural data from a large sample revealed that complex orthogonal spatial effects exert an influence on AI over and above any topographical similarity between observed and executed actions. Experiment 2 reproduced this finding in a more systematic, within-subject design, and high-density electroencephalography revealed that electrocortical expressions of AI elicited also are modulated by orthogonal spatial compatibility. Finally, source localisations identified a collection of cortical areas sensitive to this spatial confound, including nodes of the multiple-demand and semantic-control networks. These results indicate that AI measured on SRC procedures with the rotated hand stimuli used commonly might reflect neurocognitive mechanisms associated with spatial associations rather than imitative tendencies.

Dissociable effects of averted "gaze" on the priming of bodily representations and motor actions

Gaze direction is an important stimulus that signals key details about social (dis)engagement and objects in our physical environment. Here, we explore how gaze direction influences the perceiver's processing of bodily information. Specifically, we examined how averted versus direct gaze modifies the operation of effector-centered representations (i.e., specific fingers) versus movement-centered representations (i.e., finger actions). Study 1 used a stimulus-response compatibility paradigm that tested the priming of a relevant effector or relevant movement, after observing videos of direct or averted gaze. We found a selective priming of relevant effectors, but only after averted gaze videos. Study 2 found similar priming effects with symbolic direction cues (averted arrows). Study 3 found that averted gaze cues do not influence generic spatial compatibility effects, and thus, are specific to body representations. In sum, this research suggests that both human and symbolic averted cues selectively prime relevant body-part representations, highlighting the dynamic interplay between our bodies, minds, and environments.

Dynamic emotional expressions do not modulate responses to gestures

The tendency to imitate the actions of others appears to be a fundamental aspect of human social interaction. Emotional expressions are a particularly salient form of social stimuli (Vuilleumier & Schwartz, 2001) but their relationship to imitative behaviour is currently unclear. In this paper we report the results of five studies which investigated the effect of a target's dynamic emotional stimuli on participants' tendency to respond compatibly to the target's actions. Experiment one examined the effect of dynamic emotional expressions on the automatic imitation of opening and closing hand movements. Experiment two used the same basic paradigm but added gaze direction as an additional factor. Experiment three investigated the effect of dynamic emotional expressions on compatibility responses to handshakes. Experiment four investigated whether dynamic emotional expressions modulated response to valenced social gestures. Finally, experiment five compared the effects of dynamic and static emotional expressions on participants' automatic imitation of finger lifting. Across all five studies we reliably elicited a compatibility effect however, none of the studies found a significant modulating effect of emotional expression. This null effect was also supported by a random effects meta-analysis and a series of Bayesian t-tests. Nevertheless, these results must be caveated by the fact that our studies had limited power to detect effect sizes below d = 0.4. We conclude by situating our findings within the literature, suggesting that the effect of emotional expressions on automatic imitation is, at best, minimal.

Being mimicked affects inhibitory mechanisms of imitation

This study investigated the effects of being mimicked on automatic imitation indices and social cohesion. 180 female participants were either interactively mimicked or anti-mimicked. In the mimicry condition, a confederate topographically aligned, during anti-mimicry, misaligned, their behavior to the participants. Being mimicked may evoke a sense of overlap between self and other generated movements. This so-created self-other overlap may generalize to other forms of imitation and social cohesion. Here, we investigated the effects of being mimicked on automatic imitation indices, using the Imitation-Inhibition Task. These indices are the baseline corrected facilitation and inhibition index, and the interference index which depicts the relation between facilitation and inhibition. In case of a generalized self-other overlap, we expect an increase in the facilitation, inhibition, and interference index, after the Mimicry as compared to the Anti-Mimicry condition. We furthermore predicted that the modulation of the indices would predict higher social cohesion ratings. Yet, our results showed a lower inhibition index after being mimicked, respectively an increase after Anti-Mimicry, with no effects on social cohesion ratings. This suggests that potential self-other overlap after being mimicked does not generalize to automatic imitation indices. Instead, being mimicked may have increased self-regulatory processes, and task performance.

Not So Automatic Imitation: Expectation of Incongruence Reduces Interference in Both Autism Spectrum Disorder and Typical Development

Research has observed evidence for both hypo-(supposedly due to a broken mirror neuron system) and hyper-(thought to be the result of deficits in adaptive control) imitation in autism spectrum disorder (ASD). This work sought to adjudicate between these findings using an automatic imitation (AI) paradigm with the novel manipulation of the need to engage adaptive control of imitation. Results demonstrated that ASD participants do not display a specific deficit in AI capability, are able to engage in proactive control of AI, and that relative to a well-matched effector condition, AI is not selectively associated with ASD symptom severity. These data cast doubt upon the notion of impairments in imitation or its control in ASD.

Developmental trajectory of interpersonal motor alignment: Positive social effects and link to social cognition

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Interpersonal motor alignment (IMA) has positive effects on healthy social life.

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IMA - mimicry, synchrony, automatic imitation - is studied throughout development.

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It relies on motor resonance brain mechanisms identified throughout development.

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It is modulated by contextual and personal factors.

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IMA is underinvestigated in adolescence, yet it may aid to enhance resilience.

Interpersonal motor alignment is a ubiquitous behavior in daily social life. It is a building block for higher social cognition, including empathy and mentalizing and promotes positive social effects. It can be observed as mimicry, synchrony and automatic imitation, to name a few. These phenomena rely on motor resonance processes, i.e., a direct link between the perception of an action and its execution. While a considerable literature debates its underlying mechanisms and measurement methods, the question of how motor alignment comes about and changes in ontogeny all the way until adulthood, is rarely discussed specifically. In this review we will focus on the link between interpersonal motor alignment, positive social effects and social cognition in infants, children, and adolescents, demonstrating that this link is present early on in development. Yet, in reviewing the existing literature pertaining to social psychology and developmental social cognitive neuroscience, we identify a knowledge gap regarding the healthy developmental changes in interpersonal motor alignment especially in adolescence.

Automatic imitation does not predict levels of prosocial behaviour in a modified dictator game

Automatic imitation refers to the automatic tendency to imitate observed actions. Previous research on automatic imitation has linked it to a wide variety of social cognitive processes and functions, although the evidence is mixed and suggestive. However, no study to date has looked at the downstream behavioural effects of automatic imitation. The current research addresses this gap in the literature by exploring the possible relationship between trait-levels of automatic imitation, as measured by the automatic imitation task (AIT), and explicit prosocial behaviours, as measured by a modified dictator game (DG). Contrary to our expectations, AIT effects did not correlate with DG scores. This conclusion is supported by both equivalence tests and Bayesian analysis. However, we discuss a number of alternative explanations for our results, and caution against strong interpretations from a single study. We further discuss the implications of this finding in relation to the widespread notion that automatic imitation, and self-other control more generally, underlie social cognitive functions.

Sensorimotor training modulates automatic imitation of visual speech

The observation-execution links underlying automatic-imitation processes are suggested to result from associative sensorimotor experience of performing and watching the same actions. Past research supporting the associative sequence learning (ASL) model has demonstrated that sensorimotor training modulates automatic imitation of perceptually transparent manual actions, but ASL has been criticized for not being able to account for opaque actions, such as orofacial movements that include visual speech. To investigate whether the observation-execution links underlying opaque actions are as flexible as has been demonstrated for transparent actions, we tested whether sensorimotor training modulated the automatic imitation of visual speech. Automatic imitation was defined as a facilitation in response times for syllable articulation (ba or da) when in the presence of a compatible visual speech distractor, relative to when in the presence of an incompatible distractor. Participants received either mirror (say /ba/ when the speaker silently says /ba/, and likewise for /da/) or countermirror (say /da/ when the speaker silently says /ba/, and vice versa) training, and automatic imitation was measured before and after training. The automatic-imitation effect was enhanced following mirror training and reduced following countermirror training, suggesting that sensorimotor learning plays a critical role in linking speech perception and production, and that the links between these two systems remain flexible in adulthood. Additionally, as compared to manual movements, automatic imitation of speech was susceptible to mirror training but was relatively resilient to countermirror training. We propose that social factors and the multimodal nature of speech might account for the resilience to countermirror training of sensorimotor associations of speech actions.

Motor simulation of multiple observed actions

Research has shown that observed actions are represented in the motor system, leading to automatic imitative responses. However, in social life, we often see multiple persons acting together. Here, we use an automatic imitation paradigm with four stimulus hands to investigate the hypothesis that multiple observed actions can be represented at the same time in the motor system. Experiments 1 and 2 revealed weaker automatic imitation when one hand performed a different action than the other three hands, compared with when three or four hands all performed the same action. Experiment 3 replicated this effect with mutually exclusive actions. These results show that multiple observed actions can be represented simultaneously in the motor system, even when they cannot be executed together. This has important implications for theories of interaction representation.

The role of sensorimotor processes in social group contagion

Although it is well known that action observation triggers an imitative response, not much is known about how these responses develop as a function of group size. Research on social contagion suggests that imitative tendencies initially increase but then stabilize as groups become larger. However, these findings have mainly been explained in terms of interpretative processes. Across seven experiments (N = 322), the current study investigated the contribution of sensorimotor processes to social group contagion by looking at the relation between group size and automatic imitation in a task that involved minimal interpretation. The results of Experiments 1-2 revealed that automatic imitation increased with group size according to an asymptotic curve on congruent trials but a linear curve on incongruent trials. The results of Experiments 3-7 showed that the asymptote on congruent trials disappeared when no control was needed, namely in the absence of incongruent trials. This suggests that the asymptote in the relation between group size and automatic imitation can be explained in terms of strategic control mechanisms that aim to prevent unintended imitative responses. The findings of the current study are in close correspondence with previous research in the social domain and as such support the hypothesis that sensorimotor processes contribute to the relation between group size and social contagion.

Believe it or not: Moving non-biological stimuli believed to have human origin can be represented as human movement

Does our brain treat non-biological movements (e.g. moving abstract shapes or robots) in the same way as human movements? The current work tested whether the movement of a non-biological rectangular object, believed to be based on a human action is represented within the observer's motor system. A novel visuomotor priming task was designed to pit true imitative compatibility, due to human action representation against more general stimulus response compatibility that has confounded previous belief experiments. Stimulus response compatibility effects were found for the object. However, imitative compatibility was found when participants repeated the object task with the belief that the object was based on a human finger movement, and when they performed the task viewing a real human hand. These results provide the first demonstration that non-biological stimuli can be represented as a human movement if they are believed to have human agency and have implications for interactions with technology and robots.

The influence of Oxytocin on automatic motor simulation

Motor simulation is important for imitation, action understanding, and a wide range of social cognitive skills. Furthermore, the neuropeptide hormone Oxytocin (OT) has also been related to social information processing in humans, improving perception of social stimuli and increasing altruism and trust. Surprisingly, however, a direct link between OT and motor simulation has never been systematically investigated. The current study examined this question using the imitation-inhibition task, a paradigm used to investigate automatic imitation behaviour and motor simulation. In this task, participants carry out simple finger movements while observing irrelevant movements that either match (congruent condition) or do not match (incongruent condition) the instructed movements. In a double-blind, placebo-controlled design, male participants were administered either OT (N=24) or placebo (N=24), and subsequently performed the imitation-inhibition task. To ensure specificity of OT effects to imitative behaviour, participants additionally performed a Stroop colour-word interference task (adapted to optimize similarities with the imitation inhibition task) to rule out general effects on cognitive control. As predicted, OT selectively influenced the congruency effect in the imitation-inhibition task but not the congruency effect in the Stroop task. This effect showed that OT led to a larger congruency effect by slowing down reaction times on incongruent trials when observed and own actions did not match. The findings suggest that OT leads to a decrease of control over automatic imitative behaviour mediated by increased self-other merging. Thus, for the first time, a link between OT and motor simulation is demonstrated, providing a window into the role of OT in motoric aspects of social cognition.

Facilitation of action planning in children with autism: the contribution of the maternal body odor

Imitation is a key socio-cognitive skill impaired in individuals with Autism Spectrum Conditions (ASC). It is known that the familiarity with an actor facilitates the appearance of imitative abilities. Here, we explore whether a highly familiar and socially relevant stimulus presented in the olfactory modality is able to improve spontaneous imitation as early as at the level of action planning. A group of 20 children with ASC and 20 controls observed their own mother or the mother of another child performing a reach-to-grasp action towards an object, under the exposure to their maternal odor, the odor of the mother of another child or no odor. Subsequently, children acted upon the same object with no specific instruction to imitate. Child's movement initiation time (MIT) served as an indicator of motor planning facilitation induced by action observation. Results suggest that for children with ASC (but not controls) MIT was significantly lower when exposed to the maternal odor both when interacting with a familiar or an unfamiliar model. In the former case, the performance is comparable to controls. The familiar model in the absence of any olfactory cue is able to induce a facilitation effect, but the maximal facilitation on MIT is evident when maternal odor and familiar model are paired. We hypothesize that for children with ASC the maternal odor provides relevant social motivation for taking advantage of others' actions when planning movements in an imitative context.

The controlled imitation task: a new paradigm for studying self-other control

In the automatic imitation task (AIT) participants make a cued response during simultaneous exposure to a congruent or incongruent action made by another agent. Participants are slower to make the cued response on incongruent trials, which is thought to reflect conflict between the motor representation activated by the cue and the motor representation activated by the observed action. On incongruent trials, good performance requires the capacity to suppress the imitative action, in favor of producing the cued response. Here, we introduce a new experimental paradigm that complements the AIT, and is therefore a useful task for studying the control of self and other activated representations. In what we term the "Controlled Imitation Task (CIT)", participants are cued to make an action, but on 50% of trials, within 100 ms of this cue, an on-screen hand makes a congruent or incongruent action. If the onscreen hand moves, the participant must suppress the cued response, and instead imitate the observed action as quickly and accurately as possible. In direct contrast to the AIT, the CIT requires suppression of a self-activated motor representation, and prioritization of an imitative response. In experiment 1, we report a robust pattern of interference effects in the CIT, such that participants are slower to make the imitative response on incongruent compared to congruent trials. In experiment 2, we replicate this effect while including a non-imitative spatial-cue control condition to show that the effect is particularly robust for imitative response tendencies per se. Owing to the essentially opposite control requirements of the CIT versus the AIT (i.e., suppression of self-activated motor representations instead of suppression of other-activated motor representations), we propose that this new task is a potentially informative complementary paradigm to the AIT that can be used in studies of self-other control processes.

Controlling automatic imitative tendencies: interactions between mirror neuron and cognitive control systems

Humans have an automatic tendency to imitate others. Although several regions commonly observed in social tasks have been shown to be involved in imitation control, there is little work exploring how these regions interact with one another. We used fMRI and dynamic causal modeling to identify imitation-specific control mechanisms and examine functional interactions between regions. Participants performed a pre-specified action (lifting their index or middle finger) in response to videos depicting the same two actions (biological cues) or dots moving with similar trajectories (non-biological cues). On congruent trials, the stimulus and response were similar (e.g. index finger response to index finger or left side dot stimulus), while on incongruent trials the stimulus and response were dissimilar (e.g. index finger response to middle finger or right side dot stimulus). Reaction times were slower on incongruent compared to congruent trials for both biological and non-biological stimuli, replicating previous findings that suggest the automatic imitative or spatially compatible (congruent) response must be controlled on incongruent trials. Neural correlates of the congruency effects were different depending on the cue type. The medial prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate, inferior frontal gyrus pars opercularis (IFGpo) and the left anterior insula were involved specifically in controlling imitation. In addition, the IFGpo was also more active for biological compared to non-biological stimuli, suggesting that the region represents the frontal node of the human mirror neuron system (MNS). Effective connectivity analysis exploring the interactions between these regions, suggests a role for the mPFC and ACC in imitative conflict detection and the anterior insula in conflict resolution processes, which may occur through interactions with the frontal node of the MNS. We suggest an extension of the previous models of imitation control involving interactions between imitation-specific and general cognitive control mechanisms.