Cytomegalovirus viremia in HIV-exposed and HIV-unexposed infants in Malawi

In sub-Saharan Africa the great majority of infants acquire Cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection within the first year of life. Maternal long-term antiretroviral therapy (ART) has been suggested to reduce the rate of CMV acquisition in HIV-exposed infants. In the present study serum samples collected at 6 months of age from HIV-exposed and HIV-unexposed infants were analyzed for the presence of CMV DNA (with CMV positivity defined by levels of CMV DNA > 1000 UI/ml). Twenty out of 58 (34.5%) infants had CMV DNA > 1000 UI/ml. There was no difference in the prevalence of CMV viremia between HIV-exposed and -unexposed infants [33.3% (15/45) vs 38.5% (5/13), respectively, P = 0.488]. In the HIV-exposed group, mothers of CMV-negative infants had received a longer antiretroviral treatment before delivery in comparison to mothers of CMV-positive infants (28 vs 3 months, P = 0.187). No differences in weights and lengths at birth, and at 1, 6 and 12 months were observed between CMV-positive and CMV-negative infants. In this study, the prevalence of CMV viremia at six months of age was high in infants born to HIV-positive mothers receiving long-term ART, similar to that of HIV-unexposed infants. Considering the possible relevant impact of CMV on infant health, strategies for containment of the infection should be explored.

Cumulative Mycobacterium tuberculosis Infection Incidence (Measured Primarily by Tuberculin Skin Test) Among Infants With Human Immunodeficiency Virus Exposure: Observational Follow-up of an Isoniazid Prophylaxis Trial

Cumulative 24-month Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection incidence (measured primarily by tuberculin skin test [TST]) was high among human immunodeficiency virus exposed but uninfected infants (8.7 [95% confidence interval, 6.3-11.9] per 100 person-years). Trend for decreased TST positivity among infants at trial end (12 months postenrollment) randomized to isoniazid at 6 weeks of age was not sustained through observational follow-up to 24 months of age.

CLINICAL TRIALS REGISTRATION

NCT02613169.

Factors associated with the timely uptake of initial HIV virologic test among HIV-exposed infants attending clinics within a faith-based HIV program in Kenya; a cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Early infant diagnosis (EID) of HIV, followed by effective care including antiretroviral therapy (ART), reduces infant mortality by 76% and HIV progression by 75%. In 2015, 50% of 1.2 million HIV-exposed infants (HEI) in 21 priority countries received a virologic test within the recommended 2 months of birth. We sought to identify factors associated with timely uptake of virologic EID among HEI and gain insight into missed opportunities.

METHODS

This was a cross-sectional study that used de-identified data from electronic medical records of 54 health facilities within the Christian Health Association of Kenya (CHAK) HIV Project database. All HEI who had their first HIV virologic test done between January 2015 and December 2017 were included in the study and categorized as either having the test within or after 8 weeks of birth. Multivariate linear mixed effects regression model was used to determine factors associated with uptake of the first HIV EID polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Predictor variables studied include sex, birth weight, the entry point into care, provision of ART prophylaxis for the infant, maternal ART at time of EID, mode of delivery, and place of delivery.

RESULTS

We included 2020 HEI of whom 1018 (50.4%) were female. A majority, 1596 (79.0%) had their first HIV PCR within 2 months of birth at a median age of 6.4 weeks (interquartile range 6-7.4). Overall, HIV positivity rate at initial test among this cohort was 1.2%. Delayed HIV PCR testing for EID was more likely to yield a positive result [adjusted odds ratio (aOR) = 1.29 (95% confidence interval (CI) 1.09-1.52) p = 0.003]. Infants of mothers not on ART at the time of HIV PCR test and infants who had not received prophylaxis to prevent vertical HIV transmission had significant increased odds of a delayed initial test [aOR = 1.27 (95% CI = 1.18-1.37) p = < 0.0001] and [aOR = 1.43 (95% CI 1.27-1.61) p = < 0.001] respectively.

CONCLUSION

An initial HIV PCR test done after 8 weeks of birth is likely to yield a positive result. Barriers to accessing ART for treatment among HIV-infected pregnant and breastfeeding women, and prophylaxis for the HEI were associated with delayed EID. In order to ensure timely EID, programs need to incorporate both facility and community strategy interventions to ensure all pregnant women seek antenatal care and deliver within health facilities.

Human Immunodeficiency Virus Exposure but Not Early Cytomegalovirus Infection Is Associated With Increased Hospitalization and Decreased Memory T-Cell Responses to Tetanus Vaccine

BACKGROUND

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-exposed, uninfected (HEU) infants experience high rates of infectious morbidity. We hypothesized that early cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection was associated with increased hospitalization rates and decreased vaccine responses in HEU compared with HIV-unexposed (HUU) infants.

METHODS

Among infants enrolled in the Tshipidi study in Botswana, we determined CMV infection status by 6 months of age and compared hospitalization rates and responses to tetanus and Bacille Calmette-Guérin vaccines among HEU and HUU vaccinees.

RESULTS

Fifteen of 226 (6.6%) HEU infants and 17 (19.3%) of 88 HUU infants were CMV-infected by 6 months. The HEU infants were approximately 3 times as likely to be hospitalized compared with HUU infants (P = .02). The HEU peripheral blood cells produced less interleukin (IL)-2 (P = .004), but similar amounts of interferon-γ, after stimulation with tetanus toxoid. Antitetanus immunoglobulin G titers were similar between groups. Cellular responses to purified protein derivative stimulation did not differ between groups. Maternal receipt of 3-drug antiretroviral therapy compared with zidovudine was associated with increased IL-2 expression after tetanus toxoid stimulation. The infants' CMV infection status was not associated with clinical or vaccine response outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

We observed that increased rates of hospitalization and decreased memory T-cell responses to tetanus vaccine were associated with HIV exposure and incomplete treatment of maternal HIV infection, but not early CMV infection.

Lost to Follow-up and Predictors Among HIV-Exposed Infants in Northwest Ethiopia

Introduction

Even though advancement in mother-to-child HIV transmission prevention services is observed, many infants are lost to follow-up and could not access the full package of mother-to-child HIV transmission prevention services as a result. This is one of the obstacles to the effectiveness of the program. Therefore, determining the magnitude of lost to follow-up and its predictors is important among HIV-exposed infants.

Method

This institution-based retrospective cohort study was conducted from August 2013 to June 2018 at the University of Gondar Comprehensive Specialized Hospital. We retrieved charts of 423 child–mother pairs through a simple random sampling technique. Data collectors extracted data by using a data extraction tool adapted from the Ethiopian Federal Ministry of Health HIV-exposed infant follow-up form. Bivariable and multivariable Cox regression models were fitted to identify predictors of lost to follow-up.

Result

A total of 402 child–mother pairs were included in the study. Of the study participants, 6.0% were lost to follow-up for more than 3 months before the declaration of their HIV status. Born from rural residence mother (AHR = 3.5; 95% CI 1.549–7.894), infants whose mothers have three and more children (AHR = 3; 95% CI 1.284–6.963), and low birth weight infants (AHR = 3.2; 95% CI 1.055–9.450) were independent predictors of lost to follow-up among HIV-exposed infants.

Conclusion

Significant numbers of infants were unable to access full HIV diagnosis and care services as a result of loss to follow-up. Special consideration for mothers having large numbers of children, rural residence, and low birth weight infants could be an important intervention to decrease lost to follow-up.

Prevalence of vertical HIV infection and its risk factors among HIV exposed infants in East Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Background

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is one of the most important global health problems. More than one and half million of children are living with HIV in the world, and majority of them are found in sub-Saharan Africa. There are primary fragmented study findings, and no review was conducted with regard to vertical HIV infection in East Africa. Therefore, this review aimed to assess the prevalence of vertical HIV infection and its risk factors among HIV-exposed infants in East Africa.

Main body

Eligible studies were retrieved by relevant search terms in CINHAL, Pub-MED, Google Scholar, EMBASE, Web of Science, SCOPUS, Cochrane, African Journals Online databases, and Ethiopian University research repositories. Data were extracted with Microsoft Excel and analyzed with Stata version 11 software. The random effect model was used to estimate the pooled prevalence of vertical HIV infection in East Africa. The variation between studies was quantified with an I ² statistic test. Furthermore, sub-group and meta-regression analyses were done to identify the sources of heterogeneity between the studies. The publication bias was assessed by Egger test. This systematic review and meta-analysis have included a total of 33 research articles. The overall pooled prevalence of vertical HIV infection in East Africa was 7.68% with a 95% confidence interval [CI]: (6.23, 9.12) with a heterogeneity of I ² = 86.8 with a p value < 0.001. In subgroup analysis, the pooled prevalence of vertical HIV infection in cross-sectional studies was 6.58%, while in cohort studies were 9.37%. Mixed feeding, AOR = 6.22 (1.02, 11.41); home delivery, AOR = 2 (1.01, 3); mothers took ART less than 4 weeks, AOR = 1.92 (1.79, 2.06); and infants who have not received ARV prophylaxis, AOR = 2.02 (1.05, 2.98) were the associated factors for vertical HIV infection for exposed infants.

Conclusions

The pooled prevalence of the mother to child transmission of HIV is way more than the desired target of the World Health Organization, which is less than 5% in breastfeeding populations. Thus, strengthening the prevention of vertical HIV transmission, promotion of exclusive breastfeeding, timely initiation of ART prophylaxis for HIV exposed infants, encouragement of hospital delivery, and the start of ART at the time of diagnosis of every HIV-positive person may all reduce the transmission of vertical HIV infection.

The Prevalence of HIV-Positive Infants Born to HIV-Positive Mothers Attended at the University of Gondar Specialized Hospital Anti-Retroviral Therapy Services, Northwest Ethiopia, 2018

Introduction

The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) attacks the human immune cells and affects their function. It is the highest burden that occurs in a developing country. Ethiopia is one of the top ten countries in the world, which has a high burden of HIV-infected children. Even if the country works hard on the PMCT program, still there is challenging on MTCT reduction.

Objective

The purpose of this study was to assess the prevalence of HIV-positive infants born to HIV-positive mothers attending anti-retroviral treatment (ART) services at the University of Gondar specialized hospital, Gondar, northwest Ethiopia, 2018.

Methods

A retrospective chart review study was conducted from February to April 2018, among HIV-exposed infants who born to HIV-positive mothers in ART service at the University of Gondar specialized hospital. A systematic sampling method was applied to select study participants. Data were entered into EPI info version 7 statistical software and transferred to SPSS version 20 for analysis.

Results

In this study, 239 participants were enrolled, with a 98.8% response rate. The prevalence of HIV-positive infants born to HIV-positive mothers was 5.5% with a 95% CI (3.0–8.5%). Of the mothers, 77.1% were within 25–35 years of age range. Of the total infants, 56.8% were males. From these HIV-positive infants, 13 (5.5%) were born from age ranges of 25–35years old mothers, 9(3.8%) were females, 8(3.4%) were 6–11 months old, 13 (5.5%) were post-term gestation, and 13 (5.5%) were maternal CD4+ less than 350/mm³.

Conclusion and Recommendations

The prevalence of HIV-positive infants born to HIV-positive mothers in this study was lower than the previous 10.2%. To reduce such infant HIV infection to zero, it needs proactive action from stakeholders, health professionals, and the community at large.

Impact of the Umoyo mother-infant pair model on HIV-positive mothers' social support, perceived stigma and 12-month retention of their HIV-exposed infants in PMTCT care: evidence from a cluster randomized controlled trial in Zambia

Background

Public health systems in resource-constrained settings have a critical role to play in the elimination of HIV transmission but are often financially constrained. This study is an evaluation of a mother-infant-pair model called “Umoyo,” which was designed to be low cost and scalable in a public health system. Facilities with the Umoyo model dedicate a clinic day to provide services to only HIV-exposed infants (HEIs) and their mothers. Such models are in operation with reported success in Zambia but have not been rigorously tested. This work establishes whether the Umoyo model would improve 12-month retention of HEIs.

Methods

A cluster randomized trial including 28 facilities was conducted across two provinces of Zambia to investigate the impact on 12-month retention of HEIs in care. These facilities were offering Prevention of Mother-to-Child-Transmission (PMTCT) services and supported by the same implementing partner. Randomization was achieved by use of the covariate-constrained optimization technique. Secondary outcomes included the impact of Umoyo clinics on social support and perceived HIV stigma among mothers. For each of the outcomes, a difference-in-difference analysis was conducted at the facility level using the unweighted t test.

Results

From 13 control (12-month retention at endline: 45%) and 11 intervention facilities (12-month retention at endline: 33%), it was found that Umoyo clinics had no impact on 12-month retention of HEIs in the t test (− 11%; 99% CI − 40.1%, 17.2%). Regarding social support and stigma, the un-weighted t test showed no impact though sensitivity tests showed that Umoyo had an impact on increasing social support (0.31; 99% CI 0.08, 0.54) and reducing perceived stigma from health care workers (− 0.27; 99% CI − 0.46, − 0.08).

Conclusion

The Umoyo approach of having a dedicated clinic day for HEIs and their mothers did not improve retention of HEIs though there are indications that it can increase social support among mothers and reduce stigma. Without further support to the underlying health system, based on the evidence generated through this evaluation, the Umoyo clinic day approach on its own is not considered an effective intervention to increase retention of HIV-exposed infants.

Trial registration

Pan African Clinical Trial Registry, ID: PACTR201702001970148. Prospectively registered on 13 January 2017.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s13063-019-3617-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Option B+ prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV/AIDS service intervention outcomes in selected health facilities, Adama town, Ethiopia

Background: Vertical HIV transmission from mother-to-child accounts for more than 90% of pediatric HIV/AIDS infection. Virtual elimination of mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) of HIV is possible by giving comprehensive prevention of HIV/AIDS mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) care. The objective of this study was to assess Option B+ (initiation of antiretroviral therapy for all pregnant mothers) PMTCT service intervention and outcomes in selected health facilities of Adama town, Ethiopia.

Methods: A retrospective study was employed. A total of 248 medical records of mother–infant cohorts were included. Data wer collected from logbooks and/or records and individual medical records using a data abstraction tool.

Results: Mean±SD age of mothers was 26.8±4.3 years. Half (50.8%) of the mothers were enrolled in PMTCT at 13–24 weeks of gestational age. The majority (79.6%) of mothers’ CD4 counts were ≥351/mm³. Most of the mothers (71%) were on a tenofovir–lamivudine–evafrenz regimen. One-quarter of mothers were prescribed co-trimoxazole prophylactic therapy. Loss to follow-up from the Option B+ continuum was 10 (4.2%). Almost all (98.4%) of the infants were prescribed nevirapine prophylaxis. Nearly 90% (n=223) of the HIV-exposed infants were discharged as HIV negative.

Conclusions: The Option B+ PMTCT service can minimize the chances of MTCT of HIV infection if used optimally. The magnitudes of loss to follow-up and death were lower than in comparable studies. Initiating all pregnant mothers on antiretroviral therapy irrespective of their clinical stage and CD4 count may have contributed to the optimal retention in care and near elimination of MTCT of HIV infection.

Retention outcomes and drivers of loss among HIV-exposed and infected infants in Uganda: a retrospective cohort study

Background

Uganda’s HIV Early Infant Diagnosis (EID) program rapidly scaled up testing of HIV-exposed infants (HEI) in its early years. However, little was known about retention outcomes of HEI after testing. Provision of transport refunds to HEI caregivers was piloted at 3 hospitals to improve retention. This study was conducted to quantify retention outcomes of tested HEI, identify factors driving loss-to-follow-up, and assess the effect of transport refunds on HEI retention.

Methods

This mixed-methods study included 7 health facilities— retrospective cohort review at 3 hospitals and qualitative assessment at all facilities. The cohort comprised all HEI tested from September-2007 to February-2009. Retention data was collected manually at each hospital. Qualitative methods included health worker interviews and structured clinic observation. Qualitative data was synthesized, analyzed and triangulated to identify factors driving HEI loss-to-follow-up.

Results

The cohort included 1268 HEI, with 244 testing HIV-positive. Only 57% (718/1268) of tested HEI received results. The transport refund pilot increased the percent of HEI caregivers receiving test results from 54% (n = 763) to 58% (n = 505) (p = .08). HEI were tested at late ages (Mean = 7.0 months, n = 1268). Many HEI weren’t tested at all: at 1 hospital, only 18% (67/367) of HIV+ pregnant women brought their HEI for testing after birth. Among HIV+ infants, only 40% (98/244) received results and enrolled at an ART Clinic. Of enrolled HIV+ infants, only 43% (57/98) were still active in chronic care. 36% (27/75) of eligible HIV+ infants started ART. Our analysis identified 6 categories of factors driving HEI loss-to-follow-up: fragmentation of EID services across several clinics, with most poorly equipped for HEI care/follow-up; poor referral mechanisms and data management systems; inconsistent clinical care; substandard counseling; poor health worker knowledge of EID; long sample-result turnaround times.

Discussion

The poor outcomes for HEI and HIV+ infants have highlighted an urgent need to improve retention and linkage to care. To address the identified gaps, Uganda’s Ministry of Health and the Clinton Health Access Initiative developed a new implementation model, shifting EID from a lab-based diagnostic service to an integrated clinic-based chronic care model. This model was piloted at 21 facilities. An evaluation is needed.

Predictors of loss to follow up among HIV-exposed children within the prevention of mother to child transmission cascade, Kericho County, Kenya, 2016

INTRODUCTION

HIV-exposed infants (HEI) lost-to-follow-up (LTFU) remains a problem in sub Saharan Africa (SSA). In 2015, SSA accounted >90% of the 150,000 new infant HIV infections, with an estimated 13,000 reported in Kenya. Despite proven and effective HIV interventions, many HEI fail to benefit because of LTFU. LTFU leads to delays or no initiation of interventions, thereby contributing to significant child morbidity and mortality. Kenya did not achieve the <5% mother-to-child HIV transmission target by 2015 because of problems such as LTFU. We sought to investigate factors associated with LTFU of HEI in Kericho County, Kenya.

METHODS

A case-control study was conducted in June 2016 employing 1:2 frequency matching by age and hospital of birth. We recruited HEI from HEI birth cohort registers from hospitals for the months of September 2014 through February 2016. Cases were infant-mother pairs that missed their 3-month clinic appointments while controls were those that adhered to their 3-month follow-up visits. Consent was obtained from caregivers and a structured questionnaire was administered. We used chi-square and Fisher's Exact tests to compare groups, calculated odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI), and performed logistic regression to identify independent risk factors.

RESULTS

We enrolled 44 cases and 88 controls aged ≥3 to 18 months: Cases ranged from 7.3-17.8 months old and controls from 6.8-17.2 months old. LTFU cases' caregivers were more likely than controls' caregivers to fear knowing HEI status (aOR= 12.71 [CI 3.21-50.23]), lack knowledge that HEI are followed for 18 months (aOR= 12.01 [CI 2.92-48.83]), avoid partners knowing their HEI status(OR= 11.32 [CI 2.92-44.04]), and use traditional medicine (aOR= 6.42 [CI 1.81-22.91]).Factors that were protective of LTFU included mothers knowing their pre-pregnancy HIV status (aOR= 0.23 [CI 0.05-0.71]) and having household health insurance (aOR= 0.11 [CI 0.01-0.76]).

CONCLUSION

Caregivers' intrinsic, interpersonal, community and health system factors remain crucial towards reducing HEI LTFU. Early HIV testing among mothers, disclosure support, health education, and partner involvement is advocated. Encouraging households to enroll in health insurance could be beneficial. Further studies on the magnitude and the reasons for use of home treatments among caregiver are recommended.

Mother-to-child transmission of HIV infection and its associated factors in Ethiopia: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Background

Mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) is the main mode of HIV transmission in children under 15 years old. This problem is significant in the Sub-Saharan African countries, where more than 80% of children living with HIV are found. Previous studies in Ethiopia present inconsistent and inconclusive findings on the prevalence and associated factors of MTCT of HIV. Therefore, this study was conducted to determine the pooled prevalence of MTCT of HIV and its associated factors in Ethiopia.

Methods

Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guideline was followed. All published studies were retrieved using relevant search terms in MEDLINE, PUBMED, Cochrane Library, EMBASE, Google Scholar, CINAHL, and African Journals Online databases. Joanna Briggs Institute Meta-Analysis of Statistics Assessment and Review Instrument (JBI-MAStARI) was used to critically appraise articles. STATA version 14 software was used to perform the Meta-analysis. The I² statistics was used to test heterogeneity and publication bias was assessed using Begg’s and Egger’s tests. Odds ratio (OR) with 95% confidence interval (CI) was presented using forest plots.

Results

A total of nine studies, 3688 mother-baby pairs, were included in this meta-analysis. The pooled prevalence of MTCT of HIV in Ethiopia was 9.93% (95% CI: 7.29, 12.56). The subgroup analysis showed a higher prevalence of MTCT of HIV in Dire Dawa City Administration (15.7%) and lowest in Southern Nations, Nationality and Peoples Region (SNNPR) (4.16%). Associated factors with MTCT of HIV include: mixed feeding, OR = 7.46 (95%CI: 4.71, 11.81), absence of infant ARV prophylaxis, OR = 7.89 (95%CI: 4.32, 14.42), home delivery, OR = 5.08 (95%CI: 2.32, 11.15), and absence of maternal PMTCT intervention, OR = 7.13 (95% CI: 3.31, 15.35).

Conclusions

Almost one in ten HIV exposed infants become HIV positive in Ethiopia. Factors like: mixed feeding, the absence of infant ARV prophylaxis, home delivery and absence of mother’s PMTCT intervention were significantly associated with MTCT of HIV. Therefore, the governmental and non-governmental organizations need to focus on the identified factors and work towards improving the prevention of mother to child transmission of HIV (PMTCT) program.

Cytomegalovirus Infection in Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)-Exposed and HIV-Infected Infants: A Systematic Review

Cytomegalovirus is highly prevalent worldwide and an important opportunistic pathogen in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected individuals. The effects of cytomegalovirus infection on HIV-exposed infants are poorly understood. We conducted a systematic review to assess the relationship between cytomegalovirus and HIV infections among HIV-exposed infants. Limited evidence suggests that HIV-induced immunosuppression in the mother increases the rate of congenital cytomegalovirus infection, while maternal antiretroviral therapy may reduce it. Limited information exists on the direction of the relationship between cytomegalovirus and HIV transmission among HIV-exposed infants. Only 2 studies have addressed this temporal sequence of events, and they suggest that cytomegalovirus can lead to subsequent HIV infection in HIV-exposed infants. Most evidence suggests that early cytomegalovirus infection accelerates HIV disease progression in infants. Gaps remain in understanding the role that cytomegalovirus infection plays in HIV-exposed infants. Decreasing cytomegalovirus transmission prenatally and in infancy might further decrease HIV transmission and lead to better health among HIV-exposed infants.

Clinical malaria diagnosis in pregnancy in relation to early perinatal mother-to-child transmission of HIV: a prospective cohort study

OBJECTIVES

We prospectively investigated fever symptoms and maternal diagnosis of malaria in pregnancy (MIP) in relation to child HIV infection among 2368 pregnant HIV-positive women and their infants, followed up from pregnancy until 6 weeks post-delivery in Tanzania.

METHODS

Doctors clinically diagnosed and treated MIP and fever symptoms during prenatal health care. Child HIV status was determined via DNA polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Multivariable logistic regression models were used to estimate relative risks (RRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for HIV mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) by the 6th week of life.

RESULTS

Mean gestational age at enrolment was 22.2 weeks. During follow-up, 16.6% of mothers had at least one MIP diagnosis, 15.9% reported fever symptoms and 8.7% had both fever and MIP diagnosis. Eleven per cent of HIV-exposed infants were HIV-positive by 6 weeks. The RR of HIV MTCT was statistically similar for infants whose mothers were ever vs. never clinically diagnosed with MIP (RR 1.24; 95% CI 0.94-1.64), were diagnosed with one vs. no clinical MIP episodes (RR 1.07; 95% CI 0.77-1.48) and had ever vs. never reported fever symptoms (RR 1.04; 95% CI 0.78-1.38) in pregnancy. However, the HIV MTCT risk increased by 29% (95% CI 4-58%) per MIP episode. Infants of women with at least two vs. no MIP diagnoses were 2.1 times more likely to be HIV infected by 6 weeks old (95% CI 1.31-3.45).

CONCLUSIONS

Clinical MIP diagnosis, but not fevers, in HIV-positive pregnant women was associated with an elevated risk of early HIV MTCT, suggesting that malaria prevention and treatment in pregnant HIV-positive women may enhance the effectiveness of HIV prevention in MTCT programmes in this setting. Future studies using a laboratory-confirmed diagnosis of malaria are needed to confirm this association.