Effects of Vaccination against Recombinant FSH or LH Receptor Subunits on Gonadal Development and Functioning Male Rats

Luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) play key roles in regulating testosterone secretion and spermatogenesis in male mammals, respectively, and they maintain the fertility of male animals by binding to their corresponding receptors. We designed and prepared a recombinant LH receptor (LHR) subunit vaccine and a recombinant FSH receptor (FSHR) subunit vaccine and used male Sprague Dawley (SD) rats as a model to examine their effects on testicular development, spermatogenesis, and testosterone secretion in prepubertal and pubertal mammals. Both vaccines (LHR-DTT and FSHR-DTT) significantly decreased the serum testosterone level in prepubertal rats (p < 0.05) but had no effect on the testosterone secretion in pubertal rats; both vaccines decreased the number of cell layers in the seminiferous tubules and reduced spermatogenesis in prepubertal and pubertal rats. Subunit vaccine FSHR-DTT decreased the sperm density in the epididymis in both prepubertal and pubertal rats (p < 0.01) and lowered testicular index and sperm motility in pubertal rats (p < 0.05), whereas LHR-DTT only reduced the sperm density in the epididymis in pubertal rats (p < 0.05). These results indicate that the FSHR subunit vaccine may be a promising approach for immunocastration, but it still needs improvements in effectiveness.

An intracellular VHH targeting the Luteinizing Hormone receptor modulates G protein-dependent signaling and steroidogenesis

Luteinizing hormone (LH) is essential for reproduction, controlling ovulation and steroidogenesis. Its receptor (LHR) recruits various transducers leading to the activation of a complex signaling network. We recently identified iPRC1, the first variable fragment from heavy-chain-only antibody (VHH) interacting with intracellular loop 3 (ICL3) of the follicle-stimulating hormone receptor (FSHR). Because of the high sequence similarity of the human FSHR and LHR (LHCGR), here we examined the ability of the iPRC1 intra-VHH to modulate LHCGR activity. In this study, we demonstrated that iPRC1 binds LHCGR, to a greater extent when the receptor was stimulated by the hormone. In addition, it decreased LH-induced cAMP production, cAMP-responsive element-dependent transcription, progesterone and testosterone production. These impairments are not due to Gs nor β-arrestin recruitment to the LHCGR. Consequently, iPRC1 is the first intra-VHH to bind and modulate LHCGR biological activity, including steroidogenesis. It should help further understand signaling mechanisms elicited at this receptor and their outcomes on reproduction.

Study on the changes of LHR, FSHR and AR with the development of testis cells in Hu sheep

The process of testis development in mammals is accompanied by the proliferation and maturation of Sertoli, Leydig and germ cells. Spermatogenesis depends on hormone regulation, which must bind to a receptor to exert its biological effects. The changes in Hu sheep testis cell composition and FSHR, LHR and AR expression during different developmental stages are unclear (newborn, puberty and adulthood). To address this, using single-cell RNA sequencing, we analyzed testis cell composition and hormone receptor expression changes during three important developmental stages of Hu sheep. We observed significant changes in the composition of somatic and germ cells in different Hu sheep testis developmental stages. Furthermore, we analyzed the FSHR, LHR and AR distribution and expression changes at three important periods and verified them by qRT-PCR and immunofluorescence. Our results suggest that after birth, the proportion of germ cells increased gradually, peaking in adulthood; the proportion of Sertoli cells decreased gradually, reaching the lowest in adulthood; and the proportion of Leydig cells increased and then decreased, reaching the lowest in adulthood. In addition, FSHR, LHR and AR are mainly located in Sertoli, Leydig and germ cells. LHR and FSHR expression decreased with increasing age, while AR expression increased and then decreased with increasing age.

Observed to expected lung area to head circumference ratio (O/E LHR) in fetuses with congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract (CAKUT): assessment and evaluation as predictive factor for acute postnatal outcome-a single center study

Introduction

To assess the observed to expected lung area to head circumference ratio (O/E LHR) in fetuses with congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract (CAKUT) and to explore its value as a potential predictive factor for postnatal outcome.

Methods

A retrospective single-center study was conducted on pregnancies complicated by CAKUT between 2007 and 2018. The lung-to-head ratio (LHR) was calculated for each fetus by two independent observers. Correlations between O/E LHR and various perinatal outcome factors were assessed with Spearman's rank correlation. Furthermore, nominal logistic regression was performed to assess O/E LHR as predictive factor for respiratory distress in newborn.

Results

Of 64 pregnancies complicated by CAKUT, 23 were terminated. In the 41 cases of continuation of pregnancy, newborn presenting respiratory distress with need for respiratory support in the delivery room showed earlier gestational age at onset of amniotic fluid abnormalities and at birth. Although median O/E LHR and median single deepest pocket (SDP) of amniotic fluid were significantly smaller in newborn that did develop respiratory distress with need of respiratory support in the delivery room, neither O/E LHR nor SDP were accurate predictors for the development of respiratory distress.

Conclusions

Our data show that O/E LHR alone cannot serve as a predictive marker for fetal outcome in pregnancies complicated by CAKUT, though it might still be a helpful parameter together with detailed renal ultrasound evaluation, onset of amniotic fluid abnormality and SDP, particularly in its extreme values.

Rearing in an Enriched Environment Ameliorates the ADHD-like Behaviors of Lister Hooded Rats While Suppressing Neuronal Activities in the Medial Prefrontal Cortex

In addition to genetic factors, environmental factors play a role in the pathogenesis of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). This study used Lister hooded rats (LHRs) as ADHD model animals to evaluate the effects of environmental factors. Male LHR pups were kept in four rearing conditions from postnatal day 23 (4 rats in a standard cage; 12 rats in a large flat cage; and 4 or 12 rats in an enriched environment [EE]) until 9 weeks of age. EE rearing but not rearing in a large flat cage decreased the activity of LHRs in the open field test that was conducted for 7 consecutive days. In the drop test, most rats reared in an EE remained on a disk at a height, whereas most rats reared in a standard cage fell off. RNA sequencing revealed that the immediate-early gene expression in the medial prefrontal cortex of LHRs reared in an EE was reduced. cFos-expressing neurons were reduced in number in LHRs reared in an EE. These results suggest that growing in an EE improves ADHD-like behaviors and that said improvement is due to the suppression of neuronal activity in the mPFC.

MiRNA-190a-5p promotes primordial follicle hyperactivation by targeting PHLPP1 in premature ovarian failure

We previously screened 6 differentially expressed miRNAs in ovarian tissues of 4-vinylcyclohexene diepoxide (VCD)-treated premature ovarian failure (POF) model in SD rats, including miRNA-190a-5p, miRNA-98-5p, miRNA-29a-3p, miRNA-144-5p, miRNA-27b-3p, miRNA-151-5p. In this study, to investigate the mechanisms causing the onset of POF, we first identified miRNAs with earlier differential expression at consecutive time points in the VCD-treated rat POF model and explored the mechanisms by which the target miRNAs promote POF. The SD rats were injected with VCD for 15 days to induce POF. Additionally, we collected rat blood and ovaries at the same time every day for 15 consecutive days, and luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), Anti-Mullerian hormone (AMH), and estradiol (E2) serum levels were detected by ELISA. Six miRNAs expression were measured in rat ovaries by qRT-PCR. Dual-luciferase reporter gene assays were employed to predict and verify the target gene (PHLPP1) of target miRNAs (miRNA-190a-5p). Western blot was examined to detect the expression levels of PHLPP1, AKT, p-AKT, FOXO3a, p-FOXO3a, and LHR proteins on the target gene PHLPP1 and its participation in the primordial follicular hyperactivation-related pathways (AKT-FOXO3a and AKT-LH/LHR). During the VCD modeling POF rat ovaries, miRNA-190a-5p was the first to show significant differential expression, i.e., 6th of VCD treating, and PHLPP1 was verified to be a direct downstream target of it. Starting from the 6th of VCD treatment, the more significant the up-regulation trend of miRNA-190a-5p expression, the more obvious the down-regulation trend of PHLPP1 and LHR mRNA and protein expression, accompanied by the more severe phosphorylation of AKT and FOXO3a proteins, thus continuously over-activating the rat primordial follicle to promote the development of POF. In conclusion, miRNA-190a-5p may become a potential biomarker for early screening of POF, and it can continuously activate primordial follicles in rats by targeting the expression of PHLPP1 and key proteins in the AKT-FOXO3a and AKT-LH/LHR pathways.

A Possible Mechanism for Double-Yolked Eggs in the Early Stage of Egg-Laying in Zhedong White Goose-Function of IGF1 and LHR Signaling

The cause of double-yolk (DY) egg production in birds is unclear, but it is related to body weight and adiposity. We explored the causes of the high proportion (up to 26%) of DY eggs in the first clutch of Zhedong white geese. We recorded the egg production of Zhedong white geese during the first egg-laying cycle and counted the proportion of DY eggs. We found that 30% of geese had 3 sets of double or triple follicles of the same diameter in the abdomen, which was close to the DY egg rate. In addition, the mRNA expression levels of the steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR) and luteinizing hormone receptor (LHR) genes in granulosa cells were similar within the same set of follicles. Furthermore, the IGF1 concentration in geese that had at least 3 sets of follicles of the same diameter was significantly higher than that in birds with 0-1 set of follicles of the same diameter. Thus, we proposed that, in the first egg-laying stage of geese, high plasma concentrations of IGF1 stimulate the development of pre-hierarchal follicles and cause more than one follicle to be selected at the same time, mature at the same rate under the same gonadotrophin milieu, and ovulate at the same time to produce DY eggs.

New inflammatory biomarkers (lymphocyte and monocyte percentage to high-density lipoprotein cholesterol ratio and lymphocyte to monocyte percentage ratio) and their association with some cardiometabolic diseases : Results from a large Kurdish cohort study in Iran

BACKGROUND

The incidence of metabolic heart diseases has increased significantly in Middle Eastern countries such as Iran. The present study aimed to investigate the association between monocyte percentage to high-density cholesterol ratio (MHR), lymphocyte percentage to high-density cholesterol ratio (LHR), and lymphocyte to monocyte percentage ratio (LMR) and cardiometabolic diseases in a Kurdish population in the west of Iran.

METHODS

This study recruited 9803 individuals, 4728 (48.2%) were male and 5084 (51.8%) were female from Ravansar, Iran. All biomarkers were analyzed by the standard methods.

RESULTS

The prevalence of cardiometabolic diseases was higher in overweight/obese participants and increased with age. MHR and LHR increased significantly in cardiometabolic individuals compared with healthy controls. Individuals in the fourth quartiles of LHR and MHR had higher odds ratio (ORs) for metabolic syndrome (MetS) and diabetes mellitus (DM) than the first quartiles. The LMR had a statistical association with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) ORs and FLI. Besides, all these associations were stronger for females, and increased physical activity decreased inflammatory biomarkers.

CONCLUSION

The present study showed MHR and LHR had significant associations with ORs of MetS and DM. Also, MHR and LHR had a significant positive correlation with cardiometabolic risk factors. The LMR only had a statistical association with NAFLD and fatty liver index (FLI). Besides, the strong correlation between inflammatory biomarkers and cardiometabolic risk factors in females might be relevant to higher fat accumulation and metabolic inflammation background, and lower physical activity.

Chronic exposure to polystyrene microplastics induced male reproductive toxicity and decreased testosterone levels via the LH-mediated LHR/cAMP/PKA/StAR pathway

Background

Microplastics (MPs), which are smaller in size and difficult to degrade, can be easily ingested by marine life and enter mammals through the food chain. Our previous study demonstrated that following acute exposure to MPs, the serum testosterone content reduced and sperm quality declined, resulting in male reproductive dysfunction in mice. However, the toxic effect of long-term exposure to MPs at environmental exposure levels on the reproductive system of mammals remains unclear.

Results

In vivo, mice were given drinking water containing 100 μg/L and 1000 μg/L polystyrene MPs (PS-MPs) with particle sizes of 0.5 μm, 4 μm, and 10 μm for 180 consecutive days. We observed alterations in testicular morphology and reductions in testosterone, LH and FSH contents in serum. In addition, the viability of sperm was declined and the rate of sperm abnormality was increased following exposure to PS-MPs. The expression of steroidogenic enzymes and StAR was downregulated in testis tissues. In vitro, we used primary Leydig cells to explore the underlying mechanism of the decrease in testosterone induced by PS-MPs. First, we discovered that PS-MPs attached to and became internalized by Leydig cells. And then we found that the contents of testosterone in the supernatant declined. Meanwhile, LHR, steroidogenic enzymes and StAR were downregulated with concentration-dependent on PS-MPs. We also confirmed that PS-MPs decreased StAR expression by inhibiting activation of the AC/cAMP/PKA pathway. Moreover, the overexpression of LHR alleviated the reduction in StAR and steroidogenic enzymes levels, and finally alleviated the reduction in testosterone induced by PS-MPs.

Conclusions

PS-MPs exposure resulted in alterations in testicular histology, abnormal spermatogenesis, and interference of serum hormone secretion in mice. PS-MPs induced a reduction in testosterone level through downregulation of the LH-mediated LHR/cAMP/PKA/StAR pathway. In summary, our study showed that chronic exposure to PS-MPs resulted in toxicity of male reproduction under environmental exposure levels, and these potential risks may ring alarm bells of public health.

Graphical abstract

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12989-022-00453-2.

Genomic and Phenotypic Analysis of Heat and Sanitizer Resistance in Escherichia coli from Beef in Relation to the Locus of Heat Resistance

The locus of heat resistance (LHR) can confer heat resistance to Escherichia coli to various extents. This study investigated the phylogenetic relationships and the genomic and phenotypic characteristics of E. coli with or without LHR recovered from beef by direct plating or from enrichment broth at 42°C. LHR-positive E. coli isolates (n = 24) were subjected to whole-genome sequencing by short and long reads. LHR-negative isolates (n = 18) from equivalent sources as LHR-positive isolates were short-read sequenced. All isolates were assessed for decimal reduction time at 60°C (D_60°C) and susceptibility to the sanitizers E-SAN and Perox-E. Selected isolates were evaluated for growth at 42°C. The LHR-positive and -negative isolates were well separated on the core genome tree, with 22/24 positive isolates clustering into three clades. Isolates within clade 1 and 2, despite their different D_60°C values, were clonal, as determined by subtyping (multilocus sequence typing [MLST], core genome MLST, and serotyping). Isolates within each clade are of one serotype. The LHR-negative isolates were genetically diverse. The LHR-positive isolates had a larger (P < 0.001) median genome size by 0.3 Mbp (5.0 versus 4.7 Mbp) and overrepresentation of genes related to plasmid maintenance, stress response, and cryptic prophages but underrepresentation of genes involved in epithelial attachment and virulence. All LHR-positive isolates harbored a chromosomal copy of LHR, and all clade 2 isolates had an additional partial copy of LHR on conjugative plasmids. The growth rates at 42°C were 0.71 ± 0.02 and 0.65 ± 0.02 log(OD) h^-1 for LHR-positive and -negative isolates, respectively. No meaningful difference in sanitizer susceptibility was noted between LHR-positive and -negative isolates. IMPORTANCE Resistant bacteria are serious food safety and public health concerns. Heat resistance conferred by the LHR varies largely among different strains of E. coli. The findings in this study show that genomic background and composition of LHR, in addition to the presence of LHR, play an important role in the degree of heat resistance in E. coli and that strains with certain genetic backgrounds are more likely to acquire and maintain the LHR. Also, caution should be exercised when recovering E. coli at elevated temperatures, as the presence of LHR may confer growth advantages to some strains. Interestingly, the LHR-harboring strains seem to have evolved further from their primary animal host to adapt to their secondary habitat, as reflected by fewer genes involved in virulence and epithelial attachment. The phylogenetic relationships among the isolates point toward multiple mechanisms for acquisition of LHR by E. coli, likely prior to its being deposited on meat.

Ecology and Function of the Transmissible Locus of Stress Tolerance in Escherichia coli and Plant-Associated Enterobacteriaceae

The transmissible locus of stress tolerance (tLST) is a genomic island which confers resistance to heat and chlorine. In this study, we determined that the tLST is frequent in genomes of those Enterobacteriaceae that occur in association with plants as well as the intestines of humans and animals and are relevant as nosocomial pathogens, e.g., Klebsiella and Cronobacter species. The tLST is more frequent in environmental and clinical isolates of Klebsiella pneumoniae than in animal isolates, and heat and chlorine resistance of tLST-positive strains of K. pneumoniae matched the resistance of tLST-positive strains of Escherichia coli. The function of 13 tLST genes was determined by assessing the heat and chlorine resistance of E. coli MG1655 mutants. The deletion of sHsp20, clpK_GI, sHsp_GI, pscA, pscB, and hdeD_GI reduced both heat and chlorine resistance; deletion of kefB reduced only chlorine resistance. Genes coding for heat shock proteins sHsp20, clpK_GI, and sHsp_GI decreased the oxidation of cytoplasmic proteins, while kefB decreased the oxidation of membrane lipids. The fitness cost of the tLST for E. coli MG1655 was assessed by pairwise competition experiments with isogenic tLST-positive or tLST-negative strains. The tLST imposes a fitness cost that is compensated for by frequent and lethal challenges with chlorine. All core genes need to be present to maintain the ecological advantage relative to the fitness cost. Taken together, core tLST genes are necessary to provide protection for E. coli against heat and chlorine stress, and the selective pressure for the tLST maintains core genes.

IMPORTANCE The transmissible locus of stress tolerance (tLST) is a genomic island comprising 10 core genes that occurs in diverse Enterobacteriaceae and confers resistance to heat and chlorine. Experimentation described in the manuscript describes the physiological function of the core genes by characterization of the resistance of 13 single-knockout (KO) mutants and by characterization of protein and membrane oxidation in these strains after chlorine challenge. Results identify tLST resistance as a genomic island that is specific for those Enterobacteriaceae that occur in plant-associated habitats as well in the intestines of vertebrates. In addition, the ecological function of the genomic island was characterized by large-scale genomic analysis and competition experiments of wild-type and mutant strains. Results suggest that tLST-mediated resistance to chlorine may contribute to the persistence of nosocomial pathogens in hospitals.

Relative transcript abundance in porcine cumulus cells collected from different sized follicles

Crosstalk between the oocyte and surrounding cumulus cells (CCs) is essential for the production of competent oocytes. Previous studies have analysed the relative transcript abundance in oocytes derived from small (SF: <3 mm diameter)- and medium-sized (MF: 3-6 mm diameter) follicles to determine the potential use of SF-derived oocytes in assisted reproductive technologies (ART). The aim of this study was to examine the relative transcript abundance of CCs obtained from cumulus-oocyte complexes (COCs) derived from SF and MF. Nine genes were selected according to their importance for developmental competence: AT-rich interaction domain 1B (ARID1B), bone morphogenic protein receptor 2 (BMPR2), CD44, follicle-stimulating hormone receptor (FSHR), follistatin (FST), inhibin beta-A (INHBA), luteinizing hormone receptor (LHR), nuclear receptor subfamily 2 group F member 6 (NR2F6) and vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGFA). The expression of these genes was analysed by RT-qPCR. The results pointed to significant differences in five genes, and the relative transcript abundance of SF-derived CCs was lower in the case of INHBA, but higher in FSHR, FST, LHR and NR2F6 compared with MF-derived CCs. We provide information of gene activity in the porcine CCs from different sized follicles, thus improving our understanding of oocyte biology and providing new markers that identify viable and competent oocytes.

Expression dynamics of gonadotropin-releasing hormone-I and its mutual regulation with luteinizing hormone in chicken ovary and follicles

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone-I (GnRH-I) has been identified in the ovaries of vertebrate species, and this decapeptide is a key regulator of reproductive functions. However, its biological action and regulatory mechanism in the chicken ovary remain to be characterized. In this study, the expression of GnRH-I gene in chicken hypothalamus and ovaries at different developmental stages and different sizes of follicles was investigated, and the effect of GnRH-I mRNA on chicken follicular cells was analyzed in vitro. The results showed that the expression of GnRH-I was dramatically decreased in the hen ovary compared to that in the hypothalamus after sexual maturation. In the mature ovarian follicles, GnRH-I mRNA levels were significantly higher in theca cells than that in granulosa cells. Overexpression of GnRH-I decreased the expression of luteinizing hormone receptor (LHR) mRNA in theca cells from preovulatory follicles but had no effect on granulosa cells. Treatment of theca cells with different concentrations of luteinizing hormone (LH) significantly increased GnRH-I mRNA expression at low doses (50 ng/ml) but significantly decreased it at higher doses (200 ng/ml). Furthermore, GnRH-I inhibited LH-induced LHR expression at the lower dose of LH (50 ng/ml). These findings provide strong evidence indicating that GnRH-I is an important regulator in the chicken ovary.

Cloning, expression and functional characterization of a novel luteinizing hormone receptor in the orange-spotted grouper, Epinephelus coioides

Luteinizing hormone receptor (LHR) plays a critical role in reproduction by mediating LH signaling in the gonad. In this study, we cloned a novel lhr gene from the orange-spotted grouper, named glhr2. The cloned complete open reading frame sequence of glhr2 was 2082 bp in length, encoding a protein of 693 amino acids, sharing approximately 50% amino acid identity with glhr1. glhr1 and glhr2 were primarily expressed in gonad, brain and hypothalamus with low expression in other tissues such as gill, spleen, etc. The expressions of both glhr1 and glhr2 increased during vitellogenesis, while decreased during natural female to male sex change. The two gLHRs both could be activated by equine LH or human chorionic gonadotropin, but not by human follicle stimulating hormone. Both gLHR1 and gLHR2 activation stimulated the expression of cAMP response element driven reporter gene in a dose-dependent manner, while gLHR2 but not gLHR1 also activated serum response element driven reporter gene expression. This was the first study to demonstrate that two active LHRs exist in fish with possible different functional roles.

Interaction of positive coactivator 4 with histone 3.3 protein is essential for transcriptional activation of the luteinizing hormone receptor gene

The luteinizing hormone receptor (LHR) is essential for sexual development and reproduction in mammals. We have established that Sp1 has a central role in derepression of LHR gene transcription induced by Trichostatin A (TSA) in MCF7 cells. Moreover, the co-activator PC4 which associates directly with Sp1 at the LHR promoter is essential for TSA-mediated LHR transcription. This study explores interactions of PC4 with histone proteins, which presumably triggers chromatin modifications during LHR transcriptional activation. TSA treatment of MCF7 cells expressing PC4-Flag protein induces acetylation of histone 3 (H3) and immunoprecipitation (IP) studies revealed its interaction with PC4-Flag protein. MS/MS analysis of the protein complex obtained after IP from TSA treated samples detected H3.3 acetylated at K9, K14, K18, K23 and K27 as a PC4 interacting protein. The association of PC4 with H3.3 was corroborated by IP and re-ChIP using H3.3 antibody. Similarly, IP and re-ChIP showed association of PC4 with H3 acetylated protein. Knockdown of PC4 in MCF7 cells reduced H3.3 enrichment, H3 acetylation at the Lys sites and LHR promoter activity in TSA treated cells despite an increase in H3 and H3.3 protein induced by TSA, linking PC4 to H3 acetylation and LHR transcription. Depletion of H3.3 A/B in MCF7 cells impair chromatin accessibility and enrichment of Pol II and TFIIB at the LHR promoter and its activation, resulting in marked reduction of LHR gene expression. Together, these findings point to the critical role of PC4 and its association with acetylated H3.3 in TSA-induced LHR gene transcription.

Molecular and endocrine factors involved in future dominant follicle dynamics during the induction of luteolysis in Bos indicus cows

The growth profiles of the future dominant follicle (DF) and subordinate follicle (SF) and the gene expression of the granulosa cells during luteolysis induction in Bos indicus cows were evaluated. Forty cows were synchronized with a progesterone and estradiol based protocol. After synchronization, cows with a corpus luteum (CL) were evaluated by ultrasonography every 12 h, beginning at eight days post ovulation. Cows identified with a follicle of at least 6.0 mm in diameter in the second wave were split into two groups (BD-before follicular deviation and AD-after follicular deviation. In the BD group cows received 500 μg of cloprostenol (a synthetic analogue of prostaglandin F2α) when the DF reached a mean diameter of 7.0 mm (6.5-7.5 mm). In the AD group, cows received 500 μg of cloprostenol when the DF reached a mean diameter of 8.0 mm (7.5-8.5 mm). Cows in both groups were submitted to aspiration of the DF at 96 and 72 h after prostaglandin was given. Follicular aspirations were performed to quantify IGF1R, LHR and PAPPA transcripts in the granulosa cells. The diameter of the DF at the moment of prostaglandin administration (P = 0.001) and the growth rate of the SF (P = 0.05) were greater in the AD group. There was greater abundance of LHR transcripts in BD cows (P = 0.04). The remaining variables tested were similar between the experimental groups (P > 0.05). In conclusion, the induction of luteolysis before follicular deviation does not interfere with dominant follicle dynamics. However, it causes granulosa cell LHR down regulation.

The polymorphic insertion of the luteinizing hormone receptor "insLQ" show a negative association to LHR gene expression and to the follicular fluid hormonal profile in human small antral follicles

The luteinizing hormone receptor (LHCGR) has a little studied polymorphic 6 bp insertion (rs4539842/insLQ). This study has evaluated the insLQ polymorphism in relation to potential associations with hormonal characteristics of human small antral follicles (hSAFs). In total, 310 hSAFs were collected from 86 women undergoing fertility preservation. Analysis included hormonal profile of 297 follicular fluid (FF) samples and 148 corresponding granulosa cells samples were evaluated by qPCR for selected genes. Significantly reduced and non-detectable mRNA levels of anti-Müllerian hormone receptor II (AMHR2) and LHCGR, respectively, were observed for insLQ/insLQ compared to -/insLQ and the -/- genotypes. Moreover, LHCGR and CYP19a1 together with oestradiol and inhibin-B were significantly increased in -/insLQ compared to the -/- genotype. The homozygous insLQ genotype showed strong significant associations to GC specific genes LHCGR and CYP19a1, which may translate into significant changes in FF hormone profiles and an altered LH signaling.

Spontaneous prematurity in fetuses with congenital diaphragmatic hernia: a retrospective cohort study about prenatal predictive factors

Background

To evaluate possible predictive factors of spontaneous prematurity in fetuses with congenital diaphragmatic hernia (CDH).

Methods

A retrospective cohort study was performed. Inclusion criteria were presence of CDH; absence of fetoscopy; absence of karyotype abnormality; maximum of one major malformation associated with diaphragmatic hernia; ultrasound monitoring at the Obstetrics Clinic of Clinicas Hospital at the University of São Paulo School of Medicine, from January 2001 to October 2014. The data were obtained through the electronic records and ultrasound system of our fetal medicine service. The following variables were analyzed: maternal age, primiparity, associated maternal diseases, smoking, previous spontaneous preterm birth, fetal malformation associated with hernia, polyhydramnios, fetal growth restriction, presence of intrathoracic liver, invasive procedures performed, side of hernia and observed-to- expected lung to head ratio (o/e LHR). On individual analysis, variables were assessed using the Chi-square test and the Mann-Whitney test. A multiple logistic regression model was applied to select variables independently influencing the prediction of preterm delivery. A ROC curve was constructed with the significant variable, identifying the values with best sensitivity and specificity to be suggested for use in clinical practice.

Results

Eighty fetuses were evaluated, of which, 21 (26.25%) were premature. O/e LHR was the only factor associated with prematurity (p = 0.020). The ROC curve showed 93% sensitivity with 48.4% specificity for the cutoff of 40%.

Conclusion

O/e LHR was the only predictor of prematurity in this sample.

Biofilm Formation Potential of Heat-Resistant Escherichia coli Dairy Isolates and the Complete Genome of Multidrug-Resistant, Heat-Resistant Strain FAM21845

We tested the biofilm formation potential of 30 heat-resistant and 6 heat-sensitive Escherichia coli dairy isolates. Production of curli and cellulose, static biofilm formation on polystyrene (PS) and stainless steel surfaces, biofilm formation under dynamic conditions (Bioflux), and initial adhesion rates (IAR) were evaluated. Biofilm formation varied greatly between strains, media, and assays. Our results highlight the importance of the experimental setup in determining biofilm formation under conditions of interest, as correlation between different assays was often not a given. The heat-resistant, multidrug-resistant (MDR) strain FAM21845 showed the strongest biofilm formation on PS and the highest IAR and was the only strain that formed significant biofilms on stainless steel under conditions relevant to the dairy industry, and it was therefore fully sequenced. Its chromosome is 4.9 Mb long, and it harbors a total of five plasmids (147.2, 54.2, 5.8, 2.5, and 1.9 kb). The strain carries a broad range of genes relevant to antimicrobial resistance and biofilm formation, including some on its two large conjugative plasmids, as demonstrated in plate mating assays.IMPORTANCE In biofilms, cells are embedded in an extracellular matrix that protects them from stresses, such as UV radiation, osmotic shock, desiccation, antibiotics, and predation. Biofilm formation is a major bacterial persistence factor of great concern in the clinic and the food industry. Many tested strains formed strong biofilms, and especially strains such as the heat-resistant, MDR strain FAM21845 may pose a serious issue for food production. Strong biofilm formation combined with diverse resistances (some encoded on conjugative plasmids) may allow for increased persistence, coselection, and possible transfer of these resistance factors. Horizontal gene transfer may conceivably occur in the food production setting or the gastrointestinal tract after consumption.

The locus of heat resistance (LHR) mediates heat resistance in Salmonella enterica, Escherichia coli and Enterobacter cloacae

Enterobacteriaceae comprise food spoilage organisms as well as food-borne pathogens including Escherichia coli. Heat resistance in E. coli was attributed to a genomic island called the locus of heat resistance (LHR). This genomic island is also present in several other genera of Enterobacteriaceae, but its function in the enteric pathogens Salmonella enterica and Enterobacter cloacae is unknown. This study aimed to determine the frequency of the LHR in food isolates of E. coli, and its influence on heat resistance in S. enterica and Enterobacter spp. Cell counts of LHR-positive strains of E. coli, S. enterica and E. cloacae were reduced by less than 1, 1, and 4 log (cfu/mL), respectively, after exposure to 60 °C for 5 min, while cell counts of LHR-negative strains of the same species were reduced by more than 7 log (cfu/mL). Introducing an exogenous copy of the LHR into heat-sensitive enteropathogenic E. coli and S. enterica increased heat resistance to a level that was comparable to LHR-positive wild type strains. Cell counts of LHR-positive S. enterica were reduced by less than 1 log(cfu/mL) after heating to 60 °C for 5 min. Survival of LHR-positive strains was improved by increasing the NaCl concentration from 0 to 4%. Cell counts of LHR-positive strains of E. coli and S. enterica were reduced by less than 2 log (cfu/g) in ground beef patties cooked to an internal core temperature of 71 °C. This study indicates that LHR-positive Enterobacteriaceae pose a risk to food safety.

Ovarian-like differentiation in eutopic and ectopic endometrioses with aberrant FSH receptor, INSL3 and GATA4/6 expression

Endometriosis, the hormone-dependent extrauterine dissemination of endometrial tissue outside the uterus, affects 5–15% of women of reproductive age. Pathogenesis remains poorly understood as well as the estrogen production by endometriotic tissue yielding autocrine growth. Estrogens (E2) are normally produced by the ovaries. We investigated whether aberrant “ovarian-like” differentiation occurred in endometriosis.

69 women, with (n = 38) and without (n = 31) histologically proven endometriosis were recruited. Comparative RT-qPCR was performed on 20 genes in paired eutopic and ectopic lesions, together with immunohistochemistry. Functional studies were performed in primary cultures of epithelial endometriotic cells (EEC).

A broaden ovarian-like differentiation was found in half eutopic and all ectopic endometriosis with aberrant expression of transcripts and protein for the transcription factors GATA4 and GATA6 triggering ovarian differentiation, for the FSH receptor (FSHR) and the ovarian hormone INSL3. Like in ovaries the FSHR induced aromatase, the key enzyme in E2 production, and vascular factors in EEC. The LH receptor (LHR) was also aberrantly expressed in a subset of ectopic endometriosis (21%) and induced strongly androgen-synthesizing enzymes and INSL3 in EEC, as in ovaries, as well as endometriotic cell growth. The ERK pathway mediates signaling by both hormones. A positive feedback loop occurred through FSHR and LHR-dependent induction of GATA4/6 in EEC, as in ovaries, enhancing the production of the steroidogenic cascade.

This work highlights a novel pathophysiological mechanism with a broadly ovarian pattern of differentiation in half eutopic and all ectopic endometriosis. This study provides new tools that might improve the diagnosis of endometriosis in the future.

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In endometriosis aberrant E2 production raises questions on ovarian differentiation.

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FSHR and INSL3 upregulation in eutopic/ectopic, and LHR in ectopic lesions are found.

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Ovarian GATA4/6 are upregulated in eutopic/ectopic lesions and induced by FSHR and LHR.

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FSHR and LHR induce steroidogenic enzymes and the ERK pathway in endometriotic cells.

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New pathophysiological mechanism of endometriosis with tools for diagnosis is shown.

GnRH-agonist implantation of prepubertal male cats affects their reproductive performance and testicular LH receptor and FSH receptor expression

This study was conducted to investigate the effect of GnRH-agonist implantation in prepubertal tomcats on sexual behavior, reproductive performance, and expression of testicular LH receptor (LHR) and FSH receptor (FSHR) and also to compare the testicular characteristics, LHR and FSHR expression between prepubertal and adult tomcats. In experiment 1, 3-month-old tomcats (n = 6/group) were either treated with or left without 4.7 mg deslorelin implants. Semen collection and evaluation were performed just before castration at 48 weeks after treatment; removed testes were analyzed for mRNA and protein expression of LHR and FSHR. We were able to collect semen from six non-treated cats, whereas in treated cats, semen was uncollectable. The results revealed that sexual behavior was absent in the implanted cats throughout the study period. Testicular volume was found to decrease from 30 weeks after treatment onward in the implanted cats compared to the controls (P < 0.05). Semen production was found only in non-implanted cats. Testicular tissue score, seminiferous tubule diameter, and LHR protein expression were found lower in the implanted cats (P < 0.05), but no differences were observed in mRNA expression of LHR and protein expression of FSHR between groups. The mRNA expression of FSHR was higher in the implanted (P < 0.05) compared to control cats. In experiment 2, testes from prepubertal (n = 6) and adult (n = 6) male cats were collected after castration and analyzed for mRNA and protein expression of LHR and FSHR. No differences were observed in the protein expression of LHR and FSHR between the two groups, whereas mRNA expression of FSHR was higher in prepubertal cats (P < 0.05). Testicular and epididymal weight, diameter of seminiferous tubules, and the testicular grade were higher in the adult compared to prepubertal cats (P < 0.05). In conclusion, deslorelin implants suppressed protein expression of LHR and enhanced mRNA expression of FSHR along with suppression of reproductive function without any adverse effects for at least 48 weeks in male cats.

The LH/CG receptor activates canonical signaling pathway when expressed in Drosophila

G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) and their ligands provide precise tissue regulation and are therefore often restricted to specific animal phyla. For example, the gonadotropins and their receptors are crucial for vertebrate reproduction but absent from invertebrates. In mammals, LHR mainly couples to the PKA signaling pathway, and CREB is the major transcription factor of this pathway. Here we present the results of expressing elements of the human gonadotropin system in Drosophila. Specifically, we generated transgenic Drosophila expressing the human LH/CG receptor (denoted as LHR), a constitutively active form of LHR, and an hCG analog. We demonstrate activation-dependent signaling by LHR to direct Drosophila phenotypes including lethality and specific midline defects; these phenotypes were due to LHR activation of PKA/CREB pathway activity. That the LHR can act in an invertebrate demonstrates the conservation of factors required for GPCR function among phylogenetically distant organisms. This novel gonadotropin model may assist the identification of new modulators of mammalian fertility by exploiting the powerful genetic and pharmacological tools available in Drosophila.

Histological changes of testes in growth hormone transgenic mice with high plasma level of GH and insulin-like growth factor-1

INTRODUCTION

Overexpression of growth hormone (GH) leads to increase in insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) plasma level, stimulation of growth and increase in body size, organomegaly and reduced body fat. The action of GH affects all the organs and transgenic mice that overexpress bovine GH (bGH mice) serve as convenient model to study somatotropic axis. Male mice overexpressing GH are fertile, however, they show reduced overall lifespan as well as reproductive life span. The aim of the study was to evaluate the morphology and expression of androgen receptor (AR) and luteinizing hormone receptor (LHR) of bGH mice testes.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The experiment was performed on 6 and 12 month-old bGH male mice and 6 and 12 month-old wild type (WT) littermates (8 animals in each group). The morphology of testes was evaluated on deparaffinized sections stained by the periodic acid-Schiff (PAS) method. Expression of AR and LHR was investigated by immunohistochemistry and diameters of seminiferous tubules (ST) were measured on round cross sections of ST.

RESULTS

We noted larger testes in 6-month bGH mice as compared to normal WT littermates. The morpho-logical observations revealed essentially normal structure of Leydig cells, seminiferous epithelium and other morphological structures. However, some changes like tubules containing only Sertoli cells, tubules with arrested spermatogenesis or vacuoles in seminiferous epithelium could be attributed to the overexpression of GH. In contrast to WT mice, 12 month-old bGH mice displayed first symptoms of testicular aging. The immunoexpres-sion of AR and LHR was decreased in 12 month-old bGH males as compared to 12 month-old WT mice and younger animals.

CONCLUSION

Chronic exposure to elevated GH level accelerates testicular aging and thus potentially may change response of Leydig cells to LH and Sertoli and germ cells to testosterone.

Isolation and molecular characterization of partial FSH and LH receptor genes in Arabian camels (Camelus dromedarius)

Very little is known about LHR and FSHR genes of domestic dromedary camels. The main objective of this study was to determine and analyze partial genomic regions of FSHR and LHR genes in dromedary camels for the first time. To this end, a total of50 DNA samples belonging to dromedary camels raised in Iran were sent for sequencing (25 samples of each gene). We compared the nucleotide sequences of Camelus dromedarius with corresponding sequences of previously published FSHR and LHR genes in bactrian camels and other species. According to the data, the same nucleotide variation was identified in both regions of the two camel species. The alignment of deduced protein sequences of the two different species revealed an amino acid variation at the FSHR region. No evidence of amino acid variation was observed, however, in LHR sequences. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that both camel species had a close relationship and clustered together in a separate branch. This was further confirmed by genetic distance values illustrating significant sequence identity between Camelus dromedarius and Camelusbactrianus. Interestingly, sequence comparisons revealed heterozygote patterns in FSHR sequences isolated from dromedary camels of Iran. In comparison to other species, this camel contains three amino acid substitutions at 5, 67, and 105 positions in the FSHR coding region. These positions are found exclusively in camels and can be considered as species specific. The results of our study can be used for hormone functionality research (FSHR and LHR) as well as reproduction-linked polymorphisms and breeding programs.

Assessing Gonadotropin Receptor Function by Resonance Energy Transfer-Based Assays

Gonadotropin receptors belong to the super family of G protein-coupled receptors and mediate the physiological effects of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSHR) and luteinizing hormone (LHR). Their central role in the control of reproductive function has made them the focus of intensive studies. Upon binding to their cognate hormone, they trigger complex signaling and trafficking mechanisms that are tightly regulated in concentration, time, and space. Classical cellular assays often fail to capture all these dynamics. Here, we describe the use of various bioluminescence and fluorescence resonance energy transfer (BRET and FRET) assays to investigate the activation and regulation of FSHR and LHR in real-time, in living cells (i.e., transiently expressed in human embryonic kidney 293 cells). Indeed, the dynamics of hormone-mediated heterotrimeric G protein activation, cyclic adenosine-monophosphate (cAMP) production, calcium release, β-arrestin 2 recruitment, and receptor internalization/recycling was assessed. Kinetics and dose-response analyses confirmed the expected pharmacological and signaling properties of hFSHR and hLHR but revealed interesting characteristics when considering the two major pathways (cAMP and β-arrestin 2) of the two receptors assessed by BRET. Indeed, the EC50 values were in picomolar range for cAMP production while nanomolar range was observed for β-arrestin 2 recruitment as well as receptor internalization. Interestingly, the predicted receptor occupancy indicates that the maximal G protein activation and cAMP response occur at <10% of receptor occupancy whereas >90% of activated receptors is required to achieve full β-arrestin 2 recruitment and subsequent receptor internalization. The rapid receptor internalization was also followed by a recycling phase. Collectively, our data reveal that β-arrestin-mediated desensitization, internalization, and the subsequent fast recycling of receptors at the plasma membrane may provide a mechanistic ground to the "spare receptor" paradigm. More generally, the novel tools described here will undoubtedly provide the scientific community investigating gonadotropin receptors with powerful means to decipher their pharmacology and signaling with the prospect of pathophysiological and drug discovery applications.

Mechanisms for luteinizing hormone induction of growth hormone gene transcription in fish model: crosstalk of the cAMP/PKA pathway with MAPK-and PI3K-dependent cascades

In our previous studies in grass carp pituitary cells, local production of luteinizing hormone (LH) was shown to induce growth hormone (GH) production and gene expression, which constitutes a major component of the "intrapituitary feedback loop" regulating GH secretion and synthesis via autocrine/paracrine interactions between gonadotrophs and somatotrophs in the carp pituitary. To further investigate the signaling mechanisms mediating LH action at the transcriptional level, promoter studies were performed in GH3 cells co-transfected with the expression vector for carp LH receptor and luciferase-expressing reporter constructs with grass carp GH promoter. In this cell model, treatment with human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) was effective in increasing GH promoter activity and the responsive sequence was mapped to position -616 and -572 of the grass carp GH promoter. GH promoter activation induced by hCG occurred with concurrent rise in cAMP production, CREB phosphorylation, and could be inhibited by inactivation of adenylate cyclase (AC), PKA, MEK1/2, P(38) MAPK, PI3K and mTOR. AC activation, presumably via cAMP production, could mimic hCG-induced CREB phosphorylation and GH promoter activity, and these stimulatory effects were also sensitive to the blockade of PKA-, MAPK- and PI3K- dependent cascades. These results, as a whole, suggest that LH receptor activation in the carp pituitary may trigger GH gene transcription through CREB phosphorylation as a result of the functional crosstalk of the cAMP/PKA pathway with MAPK-and PI3K-dependent cascades.

Association between pharmacokinetics of adalimumab and mucosal healing in patients with inflammatory bowel diseases

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Little is known about the association between pharmacokinetic features of adalimumab and mucosal healing in patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD).

METHODS

We conducted a cross-sectional study of 40 patients with Crohn's disease (CD) or ulcerative colitis (UC) who received adalimumab maintenance therapy and underwent endoscopic evaluation of disease activity and pharmacokinetic analysis (measurements of trough levels and antibodies against adalimumab). Patients in clinical remission were identified based on CD activity index scores less than 150 or Mayo scores less than 3 (for those with UC). Patients with mucosal healing were identified based on Mayo endoscopic scores less than 2 (for UC) or the disappearance of all ulcerations (for CD).

RESULTS

The median trough level of adalimumab was higher in patients in clinical remission (6.02 μg/mL) than in patients with active disease (3.2 μg/mL; P = .012). Trough levels of adalimumab were also higher in patients with mucosal healing (6.5 μg/mL) than in patients without (4.2 μg/mL;  P  <  .005). These results did not vary with type of IBD. On multivariate analysis, trough levels of adalimumab (relative risk, 0.62; 95% confidence interval, 0.40-0.94; P = .026) and duration of adalimumab treatment (relative risk, 0.82; 95% confidence interval, 0.68-0.97; P = .026) were associated independently with healing mucosa. An absence of mucosal healing was associated with trough levels of adalimumab less than 4.9 μg/mL (likelihood ratio, 4.3; sensitivity, 66%; specificity, 85%).

CONCLUSIONS

Trough levels of adalimumab are significantly higher in IBD patients who are in clinical remission and in those with mucosal healing. Detection of antibodies against adalimumab predicts a lack of mucosal healing.

LHRH and LHR genotypes and prostate cancer incidence and survival

Despite their crucial role in initiating steroid-hormone synthesis, the hypothalamic and pituitary hormones (LH, LHRH) and their receptors have received scant attention in genetic studies of hormone-related diseases. This study included 1,170 men diagnosed with prostate cancer (PC) in Los Angeles County between 1999 and 2003. LHRH and LH receptor genotypes were examined for association with PC survival. Additionally, associations with PC incidence were examined by comparing PC cases to control men of similar age and race/ethnicity. The LHR 312 G allele was found to be associated with increased PC mortality (p=0.01). Ten years after diagnosis, 16% of men carrying two copies of the G allele (genotype GG) had died of PC, compared to 11% of those with genotype AG and 9% of those with AA. In a case-control comparison, this same allele was significantly associated with decreased PC risk: OR=0.68 (95% CI: 0.49, 0.93) for genotype GG vs. AA. These results suggest that androgens may play opposing roles in PC initiation and progression, and highlight the need to include these important but overlooked genes in future studies of PC etiology, prognosis, and treatment.

Effects of granulosa cells on steroidogenesis, proliferation and apoptosis of stromal cells and theca cells derived from the goat ovary

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of granulosa cells from small antral follicles on steroidogenesis, proliferation and apoptosis of goat ovarian stromal and theca cells in vitro. Using Transwell co-culture system, we evaluated androgen production, LH responsiveness, cell proliferation and apoptosis and some molecular expression regarding steroidogenic enzyme and apoptosis-related genes in stromal and theca cells. The results indicated that the co-culture with granulosa cells increased steroidogenesis, LH responsiveness and bcl-2 gene expression as well as decreased apoptotic bax and bad expressions in stromal and theca cells. Thus, granulosa cells had a capacity of promoting steroidogenesis in stromal cell and LH responsiveness in cortical stromal cells, maintaining steroidogenesis in theca cells, inhibiting apoptosis of cortical stromal cells and improving anti-apoptotic abilities of stromal and theca cells.

Mechanism for hepato-protective action of Liangxue Huayu Recipe (LHR): blockade of mitochondrial cytochrome c release and caspase activation

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Liangxue Huayu Recipe (LHR) as a classical prescription is clinically employed to treat liver diseases in traditional Chinese medicine.

AIM OF STUDY

In this study, we attempt to show that LHR attenuates hepatocyte apoptosis and hepatic injury induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and D-galactosamine (GalN) in rats. The present study was also designed to examine whether LHR had the protective effects on d-GalN and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α)-treated human L02 hepatocytes and its possible association with the mitochondrial pathway.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

LHR is composed of three traditional Chinese medicines: Herba Rehmannia, Rhubarb and Radix Paeoniae Rubra. LHR at 541, 1082 and 2164 mg/kg was orally administered to model and normal rats for 7 days. The effects of LHR on serum levels of liver enzymes, including alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST), were measured. Hepatocyte apoptosis in vivo was assessed by terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP-biotin nick-end labeling (TUNEL) method. Apoptosis in vitro and related morphological changes of human L02 hepatocytes were determined by high content screening (HCS) assay. The expression levels of Bcl-2, Bax and cytochrome c were detected by Western-blot analysis in L02 cells. In addition, the activities of caspase-3 and caspase-9 were tested by enzyme-linked immunosorbent detector.

RESULTS

It revealed that LHR pretreatment effectively ameliorated the GalN/LPS-induced elevation of serum ALT and AST levels, and attenuated hepatocyte apoptosis in the rat model characterized by the addition of GalN/LPS. In subsequent experiments in vitro, LHR also attenuated GalN/TNF-α-induced apoptosis in human L02 hepatocytes. Furthermore, LHR improved the mitochondrial function, inhibited the upregulation of Bax/Bcl-2 protein ratio, decreased the release of cytochrome c from the mitochondria into the cytosol, as well as inhibited caspase-3 and caspase-9 activation in this cell model.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate that LHR is effective in attenuating hepatocyte apoptosis both in vivo and in vitro, and this effect is partly mediated through the activation of the mitochondrial pathway and subsequent regulation of particular pro-apoptotic gene expression.

Transgenic GATA-4 expression induces adrenocortical tumorigenesis in C57Bl/6 mice

A link between elevated luteinizing hormone (LH) levels, GATA-4 and LH receptor (LHCGR) expression and gonadotropin-dependent adrenocortical tumorigenesis in humans and mice has been shown. To assess the mechanistic tumorigenic interrelationships between these factors, we transgenically expressed Gata4 under the 21-hydroxylase promoter (Cyp21a1, 21-OH) in C57Bl/6N mice. There was a gradual age-dependent increase of GATA-4 expression only in 21-OH-GATA-4 (TG) female adrenals, in association with slowly progressing neoplasia of non-steroidogenic spindle-shaped A cells in the subcapsular cortex. Gonadectomy (GDX), apparently through direct action of elevated serum LH, markedly enhanced the adrenocortical neoplasia, which now also appeared in GDX TG males. The neoplastic areas of the post-GDX TG adrenals contained, besides A cells, larger lipid-laden, steroidogenically active and LHCGR-positive B cells. Prolonged (>10 months) exposure to elevated post-GDX LH levels resulted in formation of adrenocortical adenomas in the TG mice. Intact and GDX TG mouse adrenals displayed elevated FOG-2 and decreased GATA-6 expression. Additionally, increased expression/activation of components of the Inhbb-Acvr2a-Acvr1c-Smad2/3 signaling system was observed in 12-month-old GDX TG adrenals. Our findings show that two distinct GATA-4-dependent populations of neoplastic adrenocortical cells form: non-steroidogenic LH-independent A cells and steroidogenic LH-dependent B cells.

Role of large hydrophobic residues in proteins

Large Hydrophobic Residues (LHR) such as phenylalanine, isoleucine, leucine, methionine and valine play an important role in protein structure and activity. We describe the role of LHR in complete set of protein sequences in 15 different species. That is the distribution of LHR in different proteins of different species is reported. It is observed that the proteins prefer to have 27% of large hydrophobic residues in total and all along the sequence. It is also observed that proteins accumulate more LHR in its active sites. A window analysis on these protein sequences shows that the 27% of LHR is more frequent at window length of 45 amino acids. The influenza virus and P. falciparum show a random distribution of LHR in its proteins compared to other model organisms.