Breastfeeding at the workplace: a systematic review of interventions to improve workplace environments to facilitate breastfeeding among working women

BACKGROUND

Breastfeeding can be affected by maternal employment. This is important considering that in 2019, 47.1% of women globally participated in the labor force. The aim of this study was to review workplace interventions to promote, protect and support breastfeeding practices among working mothers globally.

METHODS

A systematic review was conducted following the guidance of the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA). Observational, experimental and qualitative peer-reviewed studies in English and Spanish, published between 2008 and 2019 were included. The review focused on working women who were pregnant, breastfeeding or who recently had a child, and women's working environments. The outcomes of interest included breastfeeding intentions, initiation, exclusivity and duration, confidence in breastfeeding or breastmilk extraction, and perceived support at workplace. Quality was assessed according to National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) checklist for systematic reviews. It was registered on PROSPERO (#140624).

RESULTS

Data was extracted from 28 quantitative and 9 qualitative studies. The most common interventions were designated spaces for breastfeeding or breastmilk extraction (n = 24), and the support from co-workers (n = 20). The least common interventions were providing breast pumps (n = 4) and giving mothers the flexibility to work from home (n = 3). Studies explored how interventions affected different breastfeeding outcomes including breastfeeding duration, breastfeeding exclusivity, confidence in breastmilk expression, and breastfeeding support. The evidence suggests that workplace interventions help increase the duration of breastfeeding and prevent early introduction of breastmilk substitutes. Having a lactation space, breastmilk extraction breaks, and organizational policies are key strategies. However, to achieve equitable working conditions for breastfeeding mothers, organizational and interpersonal changes need to occur as well.

CONCLUSIONS

The systematic review revealed that interventions at the workplace are important in protecting, promoting and supporting breastfeeding among working mothers. To achieve equitable work environments and fair nutritional opportunities for infants of working mothers, interventions should focus at the three ecological layers - individual, interpersonal, and organizational. The quality of studies can be improved. There is a need for studies assessing impacts of workplace interventions on infant feeding practices, mothers' self-esteem and outcomes such productivity and abstentionism.

Working mothers: how much working, how much mothers, and where is the womanhood?

Motherhood confers upon a woman the responsibility of raising a child. This process also changes the way in which she is perceived in society and at her workplace. It can necessitate her to take more than available leave options, and job security can be at risk. Significant social and personal adjustments are necessary to cope with such a situation. A working mother, especially one who has the good fortune to be able to balance her home and work, enjoys the stimulation that a job or career provides. She develops the ability of raising a useful member of society and at the same time gains financial independence. Along with motherhood, work adds to the completeness of being a woman.

Physical activity moderates the association between parenting stress and quality of life in working mothers during the COVID-19 pandemic

STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Working mothers are a population experiencing heightened levels of parenting stress during the COVID-19 pandemic. The purpose of the current study was to evaluate the associations between parenting stress, quality of life, and physical activity in a national sample of working mothers who endorsed having been forced to work from home full-time due to the COVID-19 pandemic and examine if physical activity moderates the association between parenting stress and quality of life in this sample of working mothers.

METHODS

Participants in this cross-sectional study were 200 full-time working mothers from the United States (mean age = 33.50 years; SD = 6.25; 70.0% White). Participants were recruited from a Qualtrics research panel and completed the International Physical Activity Questionnaire Short-Form, the World Health Organization Quality of Life Scale-Brief Version, the Parental Stress Scale, and a demographic questionnaire.

RESULTS

After controlling for socio-demographic variables (i.e., maternal marital status, annual income, maternal highest level of education), greater parenting stress was associated with poorer maternal quality of life across domains (standardized beta coefficients ranged from -0.26 to -0.47; p < .001). The interaction between parenting stress and moderate intensity physical activity was associated with social relationships quality of life and environment quality of life (standardized beta coefficients ranged from 0.15 to 0.17; p < .05) in our sample of working mothers. The negative effect of parenting stress on maternal social relationships and environmental quality of life was weaker for working mothers who engaged in higher levels of moderate intensity physical activity.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that moderate intensity physical activity may attenuate the negative impact of parenting stress on social relationships and satisfaction with one's environment in working mothers during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Examining working mothers' experience of exclusive breastfeeding in Ghana

BACKGROUND

Although substantial evidence exists on factors that influence exclusive breastfeeding, there is a general lack of qualitative studies that examine how specific workplace factors constrain or promote exclusive breastfeeding among working mothers. The current study therefore examines working mothers' experience of exclusive breastfeeding, laying emphasis on the influence of workplace factors on working mothers' decision to exclusively breastfeed their babies.

METHODS

The study uses a qualitative research approach and a three-stage purposive sampling procedure to select 20 mothers from 10 organizations in five industries for in-depth interviews on their exclusive breastfeeding experience. Data collected from the interviews were analysed using content analysis, with two major themes emerging for discussion.

RESULTS

The results suggest that two major factors influence exclusive breastfeeding among working mothers: practice of exclusive breast feeding (knowledge and understanding of exclusive breastfeeding, and experience in exclusive breastfeeding) and workplace factors (length of maternity leave, closing time, absence of maternity policy in organizations, inadequate institutional support and family work-life balance).

CONCLUSION

The results of the study suggest that workplace factors play an equally crucial role in the decision by mothers to exclusively breastfeed their babies. Thus, in the special case of working mothers where breastfeeding prevalence is low, the findings of this study can be crucial in evolving appropriate policies to support working mothers in their effort to exclusively breastfeed their babies.

Knowledge about food classification systems and value attributes provides insight for understanding complementary food choices in Mexican working mothers

Knowledge about mothers' perceptions of food classification and values about complementary feeding is necessary for designing educational and food supply interventions targeted to young children. To determine classification, attributes, and consumption/preparation routines of key complementary foods, 44 mothers of children < 2 y of age in 14 manufacturing businesses were studied. Using 31 key foods, we conducted free-listings, pile-sort, and food attributes exercises. Hierarchical clustering showed that mothers identified nine classes of key foods, including milk derivatives, complements, junk food, infant products, chicken parts, and other meats. From multidimensional scaling, mothers used three primary classification systems: food groups, food introduction stages, and food processing. Secondary classification systems were healthy-junk, heavy-light, hot-cold, good-bad fat, and main dish-complement. Child health and nutrition, particularly vitamin content, were salient attributes. Fruits and vegetables were preferred for initiating complementary feeding on the second month of age. Consumption of guava, mango, and legumes, however, was associated with digestive problems (empacho). Red meats were viewed as cold-type, heavy, and hard, not suitable for young children, but right for toddlers. Chicken liver was considered nutritious but dirty and bitter. Egg and fish were viewed as a vitamin source but potentially allergenic. Mothers valued vitamin content, flavor, and convenience of processed foods, but some were suspicious about expiration date, chemical and excessive sugar content and overall safety of these foods. Mothers' perceptions and values may differ from those of nutritionists and program designers, and should be addressed when promoting opportune introduction of complementary foods in social programs.

Working mothers' breastfeeding experience: a phenomenology qualitative approach

Background

Breastfeeding practice is influenced by the mother’s attitude toward and knowledge of breastfeeding. Working mothers face many challenges and need support to maintain breastfeeding. This study aimed to explore working mothers’ breastfeeding experiences and challenges that can influenced their practices.

Methods

The qualitative phenomenological approach involving working mothers in Kota Bharu who fulfilled the inclusion criteria and consented to participate in the study were recruited using purposive sampling. Sixteen participants aged 24 to 46 years were interviewed using semi-structured in-depth interviews in the study. All interviews were recorded in digital audio, transcribed verbatim and analyzed using thematic analysis.

Findings

Three main themes emerged from the data analysis: perception of breastfeeding, challenges in breastfeeding, and support for breastfeeding. Two subthemes for perceptions were perception towards breastfeeding and towards infant formula. Challenges had two subthemes too which were related to perceived insufficient milk and breastfeeding difficulty. Where else, two subthemes for support were internal support (spouse and family) and external support (friends, employer, and healthcare staff).

Conclusions

Maintaining breastfeeding after return to work is challenging for working mothers and majority of them need support to continue breastfeeding practice. Support from their spouses and families’ influences working mothers’ decision to breastfeed. Employers play a role in providing a support system and facilities in the workplace for mothers to express and store breast milk. Both internal and external support are essential for mothers to overcome challenges in order to achieve success in breastfeeding.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12884-021-04304-4.

Working mothers during COVID-19: a cross-sectional study on mental health status and associations with the receipt of employment benefits

BACKGROUND

Beyond the sweeping physiological effects of COVID-19 infections in 2020 and 2021, the psychosocial impacts of lockdowns, social distancing, and the associated disruptions to daily life have brought on a simultaneous mental health crisis, particularly among many working mothers who are disproportionately balancing childcare, virtual schooling, and employment vulnerability. The aim of this study was to measure the mental health status of working mothers in the United States and associations with the provision of family-friendly employment benefits one year into the pandemic.

METHODS

Cross-sectional data were collected from a sample of working mothers in the U.S. using an online survey of mental health status and the receipt of employer-provided family-friendly benefits. Mental health was measured with the Kessler 6 (K-6) and the Short Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Wellbeing Scale (SWEMWBS). Perceived helpfulness of benefits was assessed through self-reported Likert-scale scores of 0 (not at all helpful) to 4 (extremely helpful) to determine mean helpfulness scores for benefit types. Multivariable logistic regression analyses were conducted to determine associations between receipt of employment benefits and serious mental illness (SMI).

RESULTS

A total of 728 participants met the study criteria, 83.7% were non-Hispanic/Latino white and 61.1% were 35-44 years of age. Among study participants, 54.3% (n = 395) and 21.8% (n = 159) reported psychological distress levels associated with moderate mental illness (MMI) and serious mental illness (SMI), respectively. Not receiving benefits was associated with a 50% increase in odds of SMI (aOR = 1.50, 95% CI [1.03-2.20], p = 0.036). Benefits perceived to be the most helpful for participants were flexible hours/schedule (3.5; SD ± 0.9), flexible work location (3.3; SD ± 1.1), and supplemental paid time off (3.1; SD ± 1.1), with mean scores above very helpful.

CONCLUSION

Results suggest employment benefits may help support the mental health of working mothers and provide a call to action to employers and policy stakeholders to develop solutions addressing gaps in workplace benefits and mental health support for working parents, with sustainable reform in mind to mitigate employment benefit inequities exposed by the pandemic.

Double shifts, double trouble: Alcohol as a problematic panacea for working mothers

Alcohol consumption among midlife women has become an area of research focus. We suggest it is important to examine the social roles that many midlife women take on - specifically working mothers. Working mothers balance both employment and the unequal burden of caring/domestic duties, leading to 'double shifts' of paid and unpaid labor. This creates unique stresses that may impact their drinking. This is particularly important as a growing number of mothers re-enter the workforce after childbirth. In this commentary, we suggest that working mothers' drinking tends to be overlooked or even endorsed as a means of managing the gendered stresses they face - stresses which have been exacerbated during the pandemic. We highlight the dearth of literature focusing on the drinking patterns, practices, and motives of working mothers and argue that gendered expectations placed on working mothers may be an increasingly important social determinant of health among this group.

Doing exercise or sport together with one's child is positively associated with mothers' momentary affect in daily life, but not with higher levels of overall physical activity

BACKGROUND

Physical inactivity is a widespread problem with a great need for innovative intervention concepts to overcome it. Epidemiological studies have identified working women in high-income Western countries to be at greater risk for physical inactivity. The current study included working mothers and examined within-subject associations between doing exercise/sport together with one's child and five different affective states, and with light physical activity (LPA) and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA).

METHOD

During 1 week, mothers (N = 192) completed up to eight ecological momentary assessment (EMA) surveys a day to assess momentary affect and certain situational circumstances (e.g., doing exercise/sport, being together with child). Physical activity was assessed objectively with waist-worn accelerometers.

RESULTS

Multilevel analysis showed that doing exercise/sport together with one's child was associated with higher positive affect and lower negative affect compared to being active alone. However, greater frequency of doing exercise/sport together with children was negatively associated with MVPA.

CONCLUSION

Due to the positive effect on momentary affect, combining spending time together with one's child and simultaneously doing exercise/sport might be a good strategy of pairing two relevant personal goals. However, this strategy was not associated with sufficient MVPA.

Fathers' Involvement in the Family, Fertility, and Maternal Employment: Evidence From Central and Eastern Europe

For a sample of Central and Eastern European countries, characterized by historically high female labor force participation and currently low fertility rates, we analyze whether fathers' increased involvement in the family (housework and childcare) has the potential of increasing both fertility and maternal employment. Using two waves of the Generations and Gender Survey, we show that more paternal involvement in the family increases the likelihood that the mother will have a second child and work full-time. Men's fertility and work decisions are instead unrelated to mothers' housework and childcare. We also show that fathers' involvement in housework plays a more important role than involvement in childcare. The role of fathers' involvement in housework is confirmed when we consider women who initially wanted or intended to have a child, whose partner also wanted a child, or who intended to continue working.

Breastfeeding, maternal psychopathological symptoms, and infant problem behaviors among low-income mothers returning to work

RATIONALE

One of the biggest challenges for mothers returning to work after childbirth is breastfeeding. Studies documented the physical health benefits of breastfeeding for mothers and children. However, research findings concerning the longitudinal effects of breastfeeding on maternal and children's mental health are mixed.

OBJECTIVE

The current study investigated the longitudinal effects of the length of breastfeeding on maternal psychopathological symptoms and infants' problem behaviors, among a sample of low-income working mothers.

METHODS

The sample included 285 infants and their mothers (primarily minority, low-income, and single) who returned to work 3-month postpartum, recruited from an ethnically diverse and economically disadvantaged area in a southern U.S. state. Mothers' breastfeeding behaviors were assessed four times in the first year postpartum, and mothers' psychopathological symptoms and their infants' problem behaviors were reported by mothers two times, at 12-month and 24-month postpartum.

RESULTS

Path models revealed that high maternal psychopathological symptoms in infancy worsened the effect of breastfeeding on child externalizing behaviors in toddlerhood. Likewise, very high infant externalizing behaviors worsened the effect of breastfeeding on maternal hostility one year later.

CONCLUSIONS

This study suggests the need for implementing prevention interventions with a lifecycle approach and continued, tailored professional breastfeeding support after hospital discharge among at-risk working mothers. Findings of this study can inform public policy by highlighting the importance of considering joint breastfeeding support and mental health counseling in the delivery of services to mothers and their infants who live in under-resourced environments and struggle with maternal psychopathology.

Public policy on breastfeeding among working mothers in Taiwan: comparison between two national surveys

BACKGROUND

Creating a supportive breastfeeding environment after childbirth and enabling women to work with reassurance are essential in maternal care services. The study aimed to explore the effectiveness of the utilization rate of public and workplace lactation rooms in relation to the breastfeeding rate among postpartum women returning to work in Taiwan.

METHODS

The study involved a secondary data analysis on 6,992 and 7,350 postpartum women surveyed in 2011 and 2016, respectively. Interviews were conducted with women six months postpartum. Logistic regression analysis was employed to calculate the odds ratio and investigate the differences in the utilization rates of public lactation rooms (PLR) and workplace lactation rooms (WLR) among working mothers over a five-year period, to confirm the effectiveness of public strategies.

RESULTS

Comparing the years 2011 and 2016, significant differences in the rates of exclusive breastfeeding (EBF) and any breastfeeding (ABF) among working mothers returning to work after an 8-week maternity leave, depending on whether they used PLR or WLR. The rates were higher in 2016 than in 2011. For mothers who used PLR, the breastfeeding rates for EBF at the second, fourth, and sixth months (2011 vs. 2016: 67.6% vs. 81.1%, 75.0% vs. 86.4%, 77.5% vs. 86.2%) and ABF at the second, fourth, and sixth months (2011 vs. 2016: 60.3% vs. 73.9%, 68.8% vs. 81.3%, 73.7% vs. 85.6%). For mothers who used WLR, the breastfeeding rates for EBF at the second, fourth, and sixth months (2011 vs. 2016: 51.3% vs. 58.7%, 54.7% vs. 61.4%, 57.5% vs. 59.3%) and ABF at the second, fourth, and sixth months (2011 vs. 2016: 48.4% vs. 57.0%, 52.3% vs. 60.5%, 54.1% vs. 62.4%). When comparing 2011 to 2016 from the second to the sixth month postpartum, adjusted odds ratios for EBF (PLR: 4.17-5.23 vs. 4.06-6.22, WLR: 1.71-1.83 vs. 1.30-1.61) and ABF (PLR: 6.44-7.02 vs. 9.27-9.90, WLR: 1.91-1.98 vs. 1.97-1.99) showed differences.

CONCLUSION

Lactation support rooms play a vital role in motivating working mothers to sustain breastfeeding upon their return to work. Incentivizing businesses to build additional lactation rooms and offering breastfeeding resources is essential in striving to enhance the global breastfeeding rate.

Gendered differences and strategies for work-life balance: Systematic review based on social ecological framework perspective

This paper systematically reviews gender-based work-life balance (WLB) studies conducted during pandemic times. It outlines potential problems and solutions for effectively managing work and non-work commitments. Using the Socio-ecological system theory, the study makes a significant contribution by identifying the root causes of gender disparities across four levels of inquiry: the micro, meso, exo, and macro system, based on themes that directly emerge from analysing the previous 109 articles published between till 2024. A conceptual framework is developed to understand various factors that explain why women are at high risk of experiencing gender disparity. However, we complement and populate the model with pioneering and insightful instances of gender inequalities from the literature to provide richer insights into gender-based WLB. Drawing from our research findings, we propose specific strategies to achieve WLB without reinforcing traditional gender roles. These strategies have practical implications for policymakers and human resources departments, providing them with a roadmap to design and implement work-life-friendly policies differentiated by gender to generate overall well-being.

Infant and Young Child Feeding Behaviors among Working Mothers in India: Implications for Global Health Policy and Practice

BACKGROUND

The National Guidelines on Infant and Young Child Feeding introduced in 2006 recommended the initiation of breastfeeding immediately after birth, preferably within one hour; exclusive breastfeeding for the first six months; appropriate and adequate complementary feeding from six months of age while continuing breastfeeding; and continued breastfeeding up to the age of two years or beyond. Working women in India constitute a dominant and expanding pool of mothers. There is paucity of research focused on feeding behavior within this group.

METHOD

One hundred and fifty working women answered a structured questionnaire about their demographics, birth history, levels of awareness and practice of feeding guidelines, and perceptions about breastfeeding and counseling. Data analysis was carried out using Microsoft Excel and the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences.

RESULTS

Majority of participants belonged to 21-39 years age group, had nuclear families, received college education, and delivered in institutional setups. Gaps were observed between the mother's levels of awareness and practice for different tenets of national guidelines. Higher education, longer maternity leave, higher income, and utilization of counseling services facilitated adoption of optimal feeding behavior. Most women perceived breast milk to be superior to any alternative and favored provision of counseling during last trimester.

CONCLUSIONS AND GLOBAL HEALTH IMPLICATIONS

Counseling women on optimal feeding behavior is a potential intervention to convert its awareness into actual practice. The lessons learned from this study can help refine both national and global Mother and Child Health policies and programs.

Determinants of health care worker breastfeeding experience and practices and their association with provision of care for breastfeeding mothers: a mixed-methods study from Northern Thailand

BACKGROUND

Improving breastfeeding rates is one of the most cost-effective ways to prevent infant deaths, but most of the world falls far below WHO recommended breastfeeding practices. Confident, informed healthcare workers are an important resource to promote breastfeeding, but healthcare workers are at risk of early breastfeeding cessation themselves. Culture, ethnicity and socio-economic status impact breastfeeding rates with some of the highest and lowest rates in Southeast Asia reported from Thailand. This study explores the relationship between workplace determinants of breastfeeding, personal breastfeeding outcomes for healthcare workers, and the breastfeeding care healthcare workers provide their patients.

METHODS

This study used a sequential exploratory design guided by a conceptual framework based on social ecological/ecological psychology models. Participants came from four clinical sites in Northern Thailand, from ethnically Burman or Karen communities with high breastfeeding rates, and Thai communities with low breastfeeding rates. In-depth interviews (July 2020-November 2020) were followed by a quantitative survey (November 2020-July 2021) derived from validated questionnaires (Australian Breastfeeding Knowledge and Attitudes Questionnaire and the Workplace Breastfeeding Support Scale) with minor local adaptations.

RESULTS

Interviews highlighted the beneficial effects of supportive workplace policies, the importance of physical spaces to facilitate proximity between mothers and infants, and the problem of low milk production. Meeting the WHO recommended practices of exclusive breastfeeding to 6 months or total breastfeeding to 2 years or more was more common in sites with higher levels of breastfeeding support (aOR 7.3, 95%CI 1.8, 29.1 for exclusive breastfeeding). Exclusive breastfeeding was also higher when staff set breastfeeding goals (aOR 4.4, 95%CI 1.7, 11.5). Staff who were able to see their infants during the work day were less likely to terminate breastfeeding because of work (aOR 0.3, 95%CI 0.1, 0.8). Staff who met both WHO recommendations themselves were more likely to report high levels of confidence caring for breastfeeding patients (aOR 2.6, 95%CI 1.1, 6.4).

CONCLUSIONS

Workplace protections including supportive maternity leave policies and child-friendly spaces can improve breastfeeding outcomes for healthcare workers. These improved outcomes are then passed on to patients who benefit from healthcare workers who are more confident and attentive to breastfeeding problems.

Challenges, experiences, and potential supports for East and Southeast Asian mothers in the workforce: a systematic review

OBJECTIVE

To examine the challenges faced by Asian working mothers with a focus on re-entry to the workplace. In addition, we highlight potential supports that retain women in the workforce.

DESIGN

A systematic review was conducted according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) recommendations and registered with PROSPERO database (CRD42022341130).

METHODS

Three independent reviewers were involved in the study selection to screen the search results sequentially by title, abstract, and full text using predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria. The methodological quality of each article was assessed via the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) tool.

RESULTS

We analysed a total of 36 studies conducted across different regions: 30 from the East and 6 from Southeast Asia. Among these studies, 20 were quantitative in nature, 15 were qualitative, and one intervention. The 36 studies cover five themes: 1) policies, 2) external support sources, 3) external pressure, 4) breastfeeding and 5) health status. Within each theme the same factor can have a positive or negative impact on the mother depending on her having a pro-career or pro-family mindset. Companies can take various initiatives to support working mothers, such as providing facilities for expressing breast milk at the workplace, educating staff to promote breastfeeding and accommodate childcare needs, and extending maternity leaves. However, there is a lack of literature that directly addresses the barriers and concrete support available to working mothers in Asia, beyond the scope of breastfeeding.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings underscore several obstacles that can impede a woman's seamless return to work. Pro-family and pro-career mothers have differing needs that cannot be addressed at the same time. There is a lack of comprehensive understanding regarding effective strategies or interventions that can support a positive reintegration into the workforce.

Relationships between work-family conflict and family structure in the lives of working mothers in Hungary - a pilot study

BACKGROUND

The family, as the basic socialization environment, is a complex dynamic system that - as a whole and through its subsystems - is in relationships with other social systems (Bagdy in Family socialization and personality disorders. Nemzeti Tankönyvkiadó, Budapest, 2002; Lakatos et al. in Mentálhigiéné és Pszichoszomatika 21(1):56-85, 2020). The system with which the family system has long-term relationships is the work system/environment. Creating and maintaining a work-life balance has become a central issue in our societies, as they are two of the most organising forces, and reconciling them is a very difficult task due to the demands and expectations coming from both directions, often simultaneously (Makra et al. in Magyar Pszichológiai Szemle 67(3):491-518, 2012). This kind of "double burden" primarily affects women, but their increasing role in the labour market is not necessarily followed by an equal sharing of work within family life (Engler et al. in Work-life balance in women's careers. In: Tardos K, Paksi V, Fábri Gy (eds) Scientific careers in the early 21st century. Belvedere Meridionale, Szeged, pp 114-126, 2021). We hypothesise that involvement in work negatively correlates with work-life balance, making it more difficult to integrate into the family. It was expected that the relationship between the number of children and mothers' professional involvement would be negative. A positive correlation was expected between the age of the youngest child and the mothers' work involvement. On the other hand, a family united by cohesion and resilience leads to higher job satisfaction.

METHODS

For the present analysis, we analysed the relationships between work-family conflict and family structure in working mothers with children in a sample of 273 participants. The self-reported questionnaire included demographic data and 2 standard questionnaires: the Work-Family Conflict Questionnaire and the Olson-Family Test (FACES-IV.). The study was conducted in Hungary.

RESULTS

No significant relationship was found between work involvement and work-family conflict. A negative relationship was observed between work involvement and family involvement. Similiarily, no significant relationship was found between the number of children, the age of the youngest child and work involvement, contrary to expectations. The findings indicate a positive relationship between good family cohesion, flexibility and job satisfaction.

CONCLUSION

Striking a work-family balance is a challenging process for families with young children, especially working mothers. A mutually negative relationship between work and family involvement has been shown. The importance of a well-functioning family, with adequate cohesion and flexibility, is reflected in family and job satisfaction. The relationship between work-to-family conflict and job involvement is moderated significantly only when family flexibility is low. The results from the present pilot study indicate important relationships between variables and point to further research directions worth investigating in a larger sample in the future.