Can We Motivate Students to Practice Physical Activities and Sports Through Models-Based Practice? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Psychosocial Factors Related to Physical Education

Adults (more than 18 years old) are likely to reproduce the habits that they acquired during childhood and adolescence (from 6 to 16 years old). For that reason, teachers and parents have the responsibility to promote an active and healthy lifestyle in children and adolescents. Even though every school subject should promote healthy activities, Physical Education (PE) is the most important subject to foster well-being habits associated to healthy lifestyle during sport practice and other kinds of active tasks. Indeed, there are many factors that influence the acquisition of healthy habits that should be taken into account when programs and activities are implemented in both educational and extracurricular context. In this sense, psychological and social factors are of utmost importance to achieve optimal experiences for an active and healthy lifestyle. However, due to the myriad of studies analyzing different factors in different contexts, there could be confusion when programs and pedagogical strategies are applied in educational or extracurricular contexts. The objective of this investigation is to analyse the state of art of the psychosocial factors which influence the engagement in physical activities and sport practice. The keywords used in this review were mainly: "Self-Determination Theory," "(intrinsic) motivation," "Psychological need satisfaction," "physical activity and sport engagement," "Elementary Education," "Secondary Education," "Physical Education." In addition, the Boolean data type "and," "or," and "not" were also used. The articles were selected according to the following criteria: (a) peer-reviewed original research published in international journals indexed in JCR or SJR, (b) published in English or Spanish, (c) about psychosocial factors which influence the physical activity and sport engagement, (d) in educational or extracurricular context. Research articles selected were found through Web of Science, Scopus, Google Scholar, SportDiscus (EBSCO-host), ERIC, PubMed, Medline, and PsycInfo databases. It was observed that physical activities and sport practice engagement are closely related to psychological factors. In particularly, intrinsic motivation was able to determine the active participation in any activity, including physical activity and sport practice during the implementation of Small-Sided Games and other kinds of pedagogical strategies (e.g., Pedagogical Models). Motivation was also closely related to flow state. Finally, these variables should be considered in order to organize effective programs to promote an active and healthy lifestyle in Physical Education classes.

The Neuroscience of the Flow State: Involvement of the Locus Coeruleus Norepinephrine System

Flow is a state of full task engagement that is accompanied with low-levels of self-referential thinking. Flow is considered highly relevant for human performance and well-being and has, therefore, been studied extensively. Yet, the neurocognitive processes of flow remain largely unclear. In the present mini-review we focus on how the brain's locus coeruleus-norepinephrine (LC-NE) system may be involved in a range of behavioral and subjective manifestations of flow. The LC-NE system regulates decisions regarding task engagement vs. disengagement. This is done via different modes of baseline and stimulus-evoked norepinephrine release. We emphasize the theoretical and empirical overlap between the LC-NE system and flow. For both, a match between a person's skill and task challenge is important in order to induce high levels task-related attention. Moreover, psychophysiological indicators of LC-NE system activity, such as eye pupil diameter and arousal are also sensitive to flow states. Flow is related to arousal in an inverted U-shape. Similarly, in theories on the LC-NE system, task engagement is highest with intermediate levels of arousal. We argue that knowledge about the role of the LC-NE system in establishing the flow experience may help to gain fundamental knowledge of flow and can contribute to unifying various empirical findings on this topic.

Using the experience-sampling method to examine the psychological mechanisms by which participatory art improves wellbeing

AIMS

To measure the immediate impact of art-making in everyday life on diverse indices of wellbeing ('in the moment' and longer term) in order to improve understanding of the psychological mechanisms by which art may improve mental health.

METHODS

Using the experience-sampling method, 41 artists were prompted (with a 'beep' on a handheld computer) at random intervals (10 times a day, for one week) to answer a short questionnaire. The questionnaire tracked art-making and enquired about mood, cognition and state of consciousness. This resulted in 2,495 sampled experiences, with a high response rate in which 89% of questionnaires were completed.

RESULTS

Multi-level modelling was used to evaluate the impact of art-making on experience, with 2,495 'experiences' (experiential-level) nested within 41 participants (person-level). Recent art-making was significantly associated with experiential shifts: improvement in hedonic tone, vivid internal imagery and the flow state. Furthermore, the frequency of art-making across the week was associated with person-level measures of wellbeing: eudemonic happiness and self-regulation. Cross-level interactions, between experiential and person-level variables, suggested that hedonic tone improved more for those scoring low on eudemonic happiness, and further that, those high in eudemonic happiness were more likely to experience phenomenological features of the flow state and to experience inner dialogue while art-making.

CONCLUSION

Art-making has both immediate and long-term associations with wellbeing. At the experiential level, art-making affects multiple dimensions of conscious experience: affective, cognitive and state factors. This suggests that there are multiple routes to wellbeing (improving hedonic tone, making meaning through inner dialogue and experiencing the flow state). Recommendations are made to consider these factors when both developing and evaluating public health interventions that involve participatory art.

A Review on the Role of the Neuroscience of Flow States in the Modern World

Flow states have been shown to help people reach peak performance, yet this elusive state is not easily attained. The review describes the current state of literature on flow by addressing the environmental influences as well as the cognitive and neurocognitive elements that underlie the experience. In particular, the research focusses on the transition of cognitive control from an explicit to an implicit process. This is further expanded upon to look at the current, yet related neurocognitive research of high performance associated with the implicit process of automaticity. Finally, the review focusses on transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) as a novel method to facilitates an induction of flow states. Implications are aimed at a general technique to improve on skill acquisition and overall performance.

Neural Oscillation During Mental Imagery in Sport: An Olympic Sailor Case Study

The purpose of the current study was to examine the cortical correlates of imagery depending on instructional modality (guided vs. self-produced) using various sports-related scripts. According to the expert-performance approach, we took an idiosyncratic perspective analyzing the mental imagery of an experienced two-time Olympic athlete to verify whether different instructional modalities of imagery (i.e., guided vs. self-produced) and different scripts (e.g., training or competition environment) could differently involve brain activity. The subject listened to each previously recorded script taken from two existing questionnaires concerning imagery ability in sport and then was asked to imagine the scene for a minute. During the task, brain waves were monitored using EEG (32-channel g. Nautilus). Our findings indicate that guided imagery might induce higher high alpha and SMR (usually associated with selective attention), whereas self-produced imagery might facilitate higher low alpha (associated with global resting state and relaxation). Results are discussed in light of the neural efficiency hypothesis as a marker of optimal performance and transient hypofrontality as a marker of flow state. Practical mental training recommendations are presented.

Effects of "Mindfulness Acceptance Insight Commitment" Training on Flow State and Mental Health of College Swimmers: A Randomized Controlled Experimental Study

This research explores the intervention effect of the mindfulness acceptance insight commitment (MAIC) training program on the mindfulness level, flow state, and mental health of college swimmers. A sample of 47 college swimmers from a regular university was recruited and randomly divided into two groups before the intervention. Independent variables between groups are psychological training mode (MAIC training/no training), and the independent variable within group was time (pre-test, post-test, and continuity test). The dependent variables are mindfulness level, flow state, and mental health (anxiety, depression, training, and competition satisfaction). Results show that after the intervention of MAIC training, the mindfulness level of athletes' flow state has been significantly improved, whereas anxiety and depression significantly decreased. In addition, the satisfaction with training and competition significantly improved. In the continuous stage after the intervention, the mindfulness level, flow state, and mental health of athletes are still significantly higher than those in the pre-test. The comparison of the post-test and continuity test show no significant differences in the mindfulness level, flow state, depression, and training and competition satisfaction of athletes. Still, the anxiety level shows an upward trend with a significant difference. This study demonstrates that the MAIC mindfulness training program can significantly improve the mindfulness level, flow state, anxiety, depression, and training and competition satisfaction of college swimmers with a good continuity effect. Thus, the athletes' sports experience can be improved, and good psychological benefits can be attained.

Beta and Theta Oscillations Correlate With Subjective Time During Musical Improvisation in Ecological and Controlled Settings: A Single Subject Study

In this paper, we describe the results of a single subject study attempting at a better understanding of the subjective mental state during musical improvisation. In a first experiment, we setup an ecological paradigm measuring EEG on a musician in free improvised concerts with an audience, followed by retrospective rating of the mental state of the improviser. We introduce Subjective Temporal Resolution (STR), a retrospective rating assessing the instantaneous quantization of subjective timing of the improviser. We identified high and low STR states using Hidden Markov Models in two performances, and were able to decode those states using supervised learning on instantaneous EEG power spectrum, showing increases in theta and alpha power with high STR values. In a second experiment, we found an increase of theta and beta power when experimentally manipulating STR in a musical improvisation imagery experiment. These results are interpreted with respect to previous research on flow state in creativity, as well as with the temporal processing literature. We suggest that a component of the subjective state of musical improvisation may be reflected in an underlying mechanism related to the subjective quantization of time. We also demonstrate the feasibility of single case studies of musical improvisation using brain activity measurements and retrospective reports, by obtaining consistent results across multiple sessions.

The Effect of Modeling on Self-Efficacy and Flow State of Adolescent Athletes Through Role Models

This study aimed to verify the effects of role modeling on adolescent athletes’ self-efficacy and flow state. The subjects were middle school and high school athletes registered with the Korean Sport & Olympic Committee. From the collected data, descriptive statistics, confirmatory factor analysis, correlation analysis, and structural equation model analysis were performed. To verify the mediating effects of self-efficacy in the relationship between modeling and flow state, structural equation modeling analysis was conducted. The direct effects of adolescent athlete modeling on flow state (β = 0.416, B = 0.244, p < 0.01) and self-efficacy (β = 0.479, B = 0.500, p < 0.01) were all significant, and the direct effects of self-efficacy on flow state (β = 0.404, B = 0.227, p < 0.01) were also significant. Furthermore, it was confirmed that the indirect effect of modeling on flow state (β = 0.194, B = 0.114, p < 0.01) was significant, and that the partial mediated effects of self-efficacy were significant. Thus, we confirmed that when adolescent athlete use modeling through a role model, their self-efficacy increased which in turn led to a positive effect on the ability to achieve a flow state.

Reading the MAP: A Pracademic Perspective on the Current State of Play of the Multi-Action Plan Model with Regard to Transitions between Mental States

The Multi-Action Plan (MAP) presents as an action-focused, sport-specific, mixed methods intervention model. MAP research characterized four Performance Types (PTs). Each PT operates on an affective, cognitive, behavioral, and psychophysiological level-across performance contexts. In this narrative review, we present a synthesis of our current understanding of MAP research, coupled with offering applied implications and directions for future research. We make the case for investigating the timing of transitions between PTs as our primary area of interest in expanding the MAP framework on a conceptual and applied level. Regarding pre-transition cues, we offer ideas on examining socio-environmental precursors to performance, with the aim of expanding MAP from a psycho-bio (affective, cognitive, behavioral, and psychophysiological dimensions) to a biopsychosocial concept (affective, cognitive, behavioral, psychophysiological, and socio-environmental dimensions). Regarding post-transition, we propose that investigating short- and long-term effort and reward perception will yield valuable insights into athletes' rationales behind the selection, operationalization, and experience of specific PTs. Finally, and from a pracademic perspective, we reflect critically on the achievements of MAP research thus far and provide specific directions for future research.

The mediating role of flow state between recovery and energy levels: An experience sampling method study

This study uses a resource perspective that combines theories used commonly to explore recovery experiences as a theoretical framework and investigate the effects of recovery at the beginning of the workday on exhaustion and vigour at the end of the workday, with workflow in the morning as a mediator. An experience sampling method was used to collect data from 84 fulltime employees. Participants received three survey links each workday over a 2-week period, resulting in 837 days-level and 2517 data points. Hierarchical linear regression was used to test hypotheses, with results suggesting that greater recovery at the beginning of the workday correlated negatively with exhaustion and positively with vigour at the end of the workday. Recovery at the beginning correlated positively with flow state in the morning, and flow state correlated positively with vigour at the end of the workday. Flow state in the morning mediated the relationship between recovery level at the beginning and vigour at the end of the workday. These findings suggest the importance of recovery and the effects of flow state on employees' vigour.

Examining the Mechanisms of Virtual Reality Tourism's Impact on the Mental Well-Being of Long-Term Care Facility Residents: Perspectives on Presence and Flow

This study investigates the mechanisms of virtual reality (VR) tourism's impact on the well-being of residents in long-term care facilities (LTCFs). It aims to understand how presence and flow during VR experiences can enhance well-being. This experimental study used a quantitative approach with structured questionnaires to investigate VR experiences among LTCF residents in Taiwan. After obtaining ethical approval, 145 eligible participants from four LTCFs completed a full five-week VR tourism experience. Data collection took place from June to November 2022. This study employed Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) with Smart PLS software to analyze the causal relationships between latent variables. The results confirm that the more vivid the virtual reality image (β = 0.240, p < 0.05), the more immersive the experience (β = 0.267, p < 0.05), the greater the ability to control the experience (β = 0.465, p < 0.001), and the greater the ability to stimulate curiosity during the experience (β = 0.290, p < 0.05), the greater the sense of presence. Increased presence leads to user engagement and a state of flow (β = 0.556, p < 0.001), which is essential for personal hedonia (β = 0.453, p < 0.001) and eudaimonia (β = 0.220, p < 0.001). This study elucidates the mechanisms through which VR tourism experiences enhance well-being among LTCF residents, emphasizing the critical roles of presence and flow in promoting both hedonic and eudaimonic dimensions of well-being.

Getting Into the Zone: A Pilot Study of Autonomic-Cardiac Modulation and Flow State During Piano Performance

BACKGROUND

Music performance anxiety is a common experience among elite and professional musicians and impedes performers from achieving flow state, or a state of focused, sustained engagement that promotes optimal performance.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to use heart rate variability (HRV) to determine the psychophysiological underpinnings of optimal music performance.

METHODS

We assessed HRV to study how autonomic-cardiac modulation was associated with flow during piano performance. Twenty-two pianists (15-22 years) with at least a Grade 8 Royal Conservatory of Music certification prepared two standardized pieces and a self-selected piece. Performer heart rate data were measured with a Polar 800 watch in 5-min periods immediately before performances, during performances and post-performance. HRV was employed to assess autonomic modulation of cardiac intervals. HRV indices of sympathetic and parasympathetic modulation of the heart were analyzed in 2.5-min segments to monitor short-term autonomic adjustments using the Kubios HRV Software. Flow state was measured using the 36-item Flow State Scale (FSS). Relationships were analyzed using zero-order correlations and multiple linear regressions.

RESULTS

Our sample consisted of 22 RCM Grade 8 certified pianists. Participants achieved the highest level of flow during performance of the Bach piece. Decreased HRV was observed during performance, as indicated by a significant drop in total power. Flow state was positively associated with High Frequency (HF) power during the pre-performance phase, and inversely associated with Low Frequency (LF) power during performance.

CONCLUSION

Inverse association of flow with LF-HRV during performance affirms the importance of vagal-HR modulation for achievement of flow state. Increased HF-HRV and reduced LF-HRV immediately prior to performance suggests that flow state may be shaped as much by physiological preparation during pre-performance as it is by physiologic responses during performance. Further research is required to validate the correlation between autonomic modulation of the heart and flow state. Evidence of this correlation between autonomic modulation of the heart and achievement of flow state may pave the way for further research on enhancing musical performance and targeting MPA through HRV-based interventions.

Effects of Soundscape on Flow State during Diabolo Exercise

“Soundscape” is defined as “an acoustic environment as perceived or experienced and/or understood by a person or people, in context.” The research focuses on the physical properties of sound, paying attention to the relationship between the soundscape and people. Sports provide a comprehensive context, including the athletes, their behavior, the environment, spectators, and other elements. Soundscape in sports has many important functions, such as indicating the movement process, promoting positive emotions, and enhancing the entertainment atmosphere. It is also related to the physical and mental health of people who are exercising. As a technical sport with multidimensional soundscape qualities, diabolo is very popular among older adults in China due to its easy portability and operation. In order to explore the influence mechanism of the soundscape on the mental health of older players and better guide the shaping of soundscapes at sports venues, this paper focuses on soundscape perception and proposes a two-channel (direct and indirect) model of the influence of the diabolo soundscape on the psychological perception of older players. At the same time, we introduce the flow state as an indicator to evaluate mental health, and use the Short Flow State Scale (SFSS) to measure the flow state. By setting up a control experiment using the diabolo with and without sound and using the two-channel (direct and indirect) influence model to compare the differences in flow state scores under the two states, we analyzed the influence mechanism of the diabolo soundscape on the flow state of elderly groups. The results show that the scores of various flow state dimensions and total flow scores in the silent state of diabolo exercise are significantly lower than those in the sound state (p < 0.05 and p < 0.001), and the main differences are in the three dimensions of unambiguous feedback, sense of control, and autotelic experience. The two-channel influence model can effectively explain the differences in older adults’ flow state, which provides a new comprehensive perspective to study the effect of the soundscape in sports on people’s mental health.

Exploring characteristics of and transitions between mental states within the Multi-Action Plan model in high-level judo

The Multi-Action Plan (MAP) model presents an idiosyncratic framework for human performance. MAP research has categorised four Performance Types (PTs; T1-T4) using self-paced activities. Specifically, T1-4 present four distinct mental states experienced by athletes during performance, differing, among other aspects, in the level of effort and perceived control. However, transitions between PTs are yet to be empirically investigated. This study aimed to examine MAP in the hyperdynamic open-skill combat context of judo. We explored how judoka experienced PTs and the transition processes between these mental states. Six British, high-level judoka (n = 6; Mdnage = 19) were interviewed using a retrospective semi-structured interview schedule. Interpretative phenomenological analysis indicated that judo presents a hyperdynamic difficult-to-predict performance context due to the opponent and fighting rhythm. Second, participants strongly related to T2 and T3 and less to T1 and T4. They also reported experiences 'between' T2 and T3. Lastly, participants reported common transition pathways (e.g., T2-T3), typical transition cues, and specific trainable strategies to optimise performance. Findings are discussed in relation to existing literature. Lastly, we present limitations, applied, and research considerations.

Birthing With Others: Exploring the Efficacy of One-On-One Professional Support on Physiological Birth and Flow State

BACKGROUND

One-on-one professional support during labor is recognized for its role in promoting physiological birth, reducing interventions, and enhancing women's birthing experiences. Throughout physiological birth, many women encounter an altered state of consciousness. This state not only facilitates the normal birth process but also empowers women during and after childbirth. Recently, the flow-a mental state of complete absorption and energized focus in an activity, with a sense of control and high motivation-has been identified as a measure of this experience during physiological birth. This study aimed to discover whether one-on-one continuous professional support would improve the childbirth experience by increasing the likelihood of physiological birth and a heightened state of flow during childbirth.

METHODS

Women with childbirth experience were recruited through social media. Participants (n = 788) completed an online survey: the Flow State Scale (FSS) and a demographic questionnaire, including details about the professional support received during childbirth.

RESULTS

One-on-one professional support was significantly associated with natural childbirth (midwife: 80.9%, doula: 65.7%) and lower medical interventions (midwife: 19.1%, doula: 34.3%) compared to conventional professional assistance (natural birth: 44.4%, interventions: 55.6%). A MANCOVA analysis revealed significant differences in flow state levels, with women receiving one-on-one support experiencing the highest flow state.

CONCLUSIONS

This research validates the significant correlation between one-on-one support-provided by midwives or doulas-and physiological birth. It also establishes for the first time a correlation between women in childbirth receiving continuous one-on-one professional support and heightened flow state levels, signifying a positive and empowering birthing experience.

Physiological synchrony and shared flow state in Javanese gamelan: positively associated while improvising, but not for traditional performance

The experience of shared flow refers to the optimal balance between challenge and ability for a given task, resulting from interpersonal action in a group situation. The performance of Javanese gamelan is an ideal setting to investigate shared flow, due to the requirement that all performers on varying instrumental parts work harmoniously, allowing for shared flow and its native equivalent, ngeli. To minimise the disruption of flow, while still measuring it continuously, one way to assess a person's state is by measuring physiological responses of the sympathetic (i.e., fight-or-flight) system, namely heart rate and skin conductance. Flow has been related to physiological signatures, and shared actions in music-making have been related to synchronised physiology. However, to our knowledge, no study yet has directly investigated the links between shared physiology and shared flow. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the associations between flow states, physiological synchrony, and Javanese gamelan playing. Subsequently, we tested for differences between advanced and beginner groups playing traditional gamelan pieces and improvising. Firstly, a factor analysis revealed a two-factor solution of Awareness and Absorption for self-reported shared flow. Next, using inter-subject correlation to assess synchrony and circular shuffling to infer significance, we found a greater proportion of significance in traditional playing compared to improvised playing for the experienced group, and the opposite for the beginner group. Lastly, linear mixed models revealed largely positive associations between synchronised physiology and shared flow during improvised playing, and negative associations during traditional playing, regardless of experience levels. This study demonstrates methodological possibilities for the quantitative study of shared flow in music-making contexts, and potential differences in shared flow experience in improvised and traditional, or prescribed, playing.

Alone but flowing: The effects of autotelic personality and extraversion on solitary flow

OBJECTIVE/BACKGROUND

Flow, a psychological state of intense engagement in and enjoyment of an activity, can arise during both solitary and socially interactive experiences. In the literature, whereas people high in extraversion have difficulty achieving flow in solitude, those with an autotelic personality-a combination of traits that make people prone to flow-readily experience flow in both solitary and interactive conditions. In this pre-registered experiment, we investigated whether autotelic personality mitigates the negative association between solitary flow and extraversion.

METHOD

Participants and their romantic partners (final N = 368) played the game Perfection™ in three conditions (order was counterbalanced): alone (solitary condition), in the presence of their partner without interaction (mere-presence condition), and collaboratively (interactive condition).

RESULTS

There were independent, positive main effects of extraversion and autotelic personality on flow experience in mere-presence and interactive conditions. However, the positive effect of extraversion on solitary flow was only significant among participants with high (vs. low) autotelic personality. In all conditions, flow experience was associated with greater low-arousal positive affect and lesser high-arousal negative affect.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings shed light on the role of personality in promoting solitary flow experiences, and particularly how traits might interact to determine optimal and non-optimal conditions for achieving flow.

Toward Detecting the Zone of Elite Tennis Players Through Wearable Technology

Wearable devices fall short in providing information other than physiological metrics despite athletes' demand for psychological feedback. To address this, we introduce a preliminary exploration to track psychological states of athletes based on commercial wearable devices, coach observations and machine learning. Our system collects Inertial Measuring Unit data from tennis players, while their coaches provide labels on their psychological states. A recurrent neural network is then trained to predict coach labels from sensor data. We test our approach by predicting being in the zone, a psychological state of optimal performance. We conduct two experimental games with two elite coaches and four professional players for evaluation. Our learned models achieve above 85% test accuracy, implying that our approach could be utilized to predict the zone at relatively low cost. Based on these findings, we discuss design implications and feasibility of this approach by contextualizing it in a real-life scenario.

Identification of Language-Induced Mental Load from Eye Behaviors in Virtual Reality

Experiences of virtual reality (VR) can easily break if the method of evaluating subjective user states is intrusive. Behavioral measures are increasingly used to avoid this problem. One such measure is eye tracking, which recently became more standard in VR and is often used for content-dependent analyses. This research is an endeavor to utilize content-independent eye metrics, such as pupil size and blinks, for identifying mental load in VR users. We generated mental load independently from visuals through auditory stimuli. We also defined and measured a new eye metric, focus offset, which seeks to measure the phenomenon of "staring into the distance" without focusing on a specific surface. In the experiment, VR-experienced participants listened to two native and two foreign language stimuli inside a virtual phone booth. The results show that with increasing mental load, relative pupil size on average increased 0.512 SDs (0.118 mm), with 57% reduced variance. To a lesser extent, mental load led to fewer fixations, less voluntary gazing at distracting content, and a larger focus offset as if looking through surfaces (about 0.343 SDs, 5.10 cm). These results are in agreement with previous studies. Overall, we encourage further research on content-independent eye metrics, and we hope that hardware and algorithms will be developed in the future to further increase tracking stability.