A chromosome-scale genome of Rhus chinensis Mill. provides new insights into plant-insect interaction and gallotannins biosynthesis

Rhus chinensis Mill., an economically valuable Anacardiaceae species, is parasitized by the galling aphid Schlechtendalia chinensis, resulting in the formation of the Chinese gallnut (CG). Here, we report a chromosomal-level genome assembly of R. chinensis, with a total size of 389.40 Mb and scaffold N50 of 23.02 Mb. Comparative genomic and transcriptome analysis revealed that the enhanced structure of CG and nutritional metabolism contribute to improving the adaptability of R. chinensis to S. chinensis by supporting CG and galling aphid growth. CG was observed to be abundant in hydrolysable tannins (HT), particularly gallotannin and its isomers. Tandem repeat clusters of dehydroquinate dehydratase/shikimate dehydrogenase (DQD/SDH) and serine carboxypeptidase-like (SCPL) and their homologs involved in HT production were determined as specific to HT-rich species. The functional differentiation of DQD/SDH tandem duplicate genes and the significant contraction in the phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) gene family contributed to the accumulation of gallic acid and HT while minimizing the production of shikimic acid, flavonoids, and condensed tannins in CG. Furthermore, we identified one UDP glucosyltransferase (UGT84A), three carboxylesterase (CXE), and six SCPL genes from conserved tandem repeat clusters that are involved in gallotannin biosynthesis and hydrolysis in CG. We then constructed a regulatory network of these genes based on co-expression and transcription factor motif analysis. Our findings provide a genomic resource for the exploration of the underlying mechanisms of plant-galling insect interaction and highlight the importance of the functional divergence of tandem duplicate genes in the accumulation of secondary metabolites.

Characterization of 20 Oenological Tannins from Different Botanical Origins for Formulation of Blends with Redox Potential Tuning Ability in Model Wine Solution

Twenty oenotannins from different botanical origins were studied in model wine solution (1 g/L, 12% ethanol, pH 3.5). An original device was created for measuring Oxidation-Reduction potential (ORp) of the solutions at 20 °C in strict anoxic condition by the electrochemical method of the platinum electrode zero-current potential. Reactivity against proteins and antioxidant properties were related to the chemical structure and, consequently, to the botanical origin of the oenotannins. The highest turbidity after BSA addition (ΔNTU > 1000) values were measured for the gallic hydrolysable tannins. The ORp versus standard hydrogen electrode ranged from 420 to 260 mV. The ellagitannins had the highest antioxidant power (AP%), followed by condensed tannins and gallotannins, highlighting a correlation with the phenolic profile. Based on these findings, two formulations were prepared as a blend of some of the tested oenotannins, with the ability to increase (MIX1) and decrease (MIX2) the ORp of the model wine.

Pentagalloyl Glucose: A Review of Anticancer Properties, Molecular Targets, Mechanisms of Action, Pharmacokinetics, and Safety Profile

Pentagalloyl glucose (PGG) is a natural hydrolyzable gallotannin abundant in various plants and herbs. It has a broad range of biological activities, specifically anticancer activities, and numerous molecular targets. Despite multiple studies available on the pharmacological action of PGG, the molecular mechanisms underlying the anticancer effects of PGG are unclear. Here, we have critically reviewed the natural sources of PGG, its anticancer properties, and underlying mechanisms of action. We found that multiple natural sources of PGG are available, and the existing production technology is sufficient to produce large quantities of the required product. Three plants (or their parts) with maximum PGG content were Rhus chinensis Mill, Bouea macrophylla seed, and Mangifera indica kernel. PGG acts on multiple molecular targets and signaling pathways associated with the hallmarks of cancer to inhibit growth, angiogenesis, and metastasis of several cancers. Moreover, PGG can enhance the efficacy of chemotherapy and radiotherapy by modulating various cancer-associated pathways. Therefore, PGG can be used for treating different human cancers; nevertheless, the data on the pharmacokinetics and safety profile of PGG are limited, and further studies are essential to define the clinical use of PGG in cancer therapies.

Anti-Adipogenic Activity of Secondary Metabolites Isolated from Smilax sieboldii Miq. on 3T3-L1 Adipocytes

Smilax sieboldii, a climbing tree belonging to Smilacaceae, has been used in traditional oriental medicine for treating arthritis, tumors, leprosy, psoriasis, and lumbago. To evaluate the anti-obesity effects of S. sieboldii (Smilacaceae), we screened methylene chloride (CH₂Cl₂), ethyl acetate (EtOAc), aqueous-saturated n-butanol, and ethanol (EtOH) extracts of the whole plant at various concentrations to inhibit adipogenesis in adipocytes. The 3T3-L1 cell line with Oil red O staining with the help of fluorometry was used as an indicator of anti-obesity activity. Bioactivity-guided fractionation of the EtOH extract and subsequent phytochemical investigation of the active CH₂Cl₂- and EtOAc-soluble fractions resulted in the isolation of 19 secondary metabolites (1-19), including a new α-hydroxy acid derivative (16) and two new lanostane-type triterpenoids (17 and 18). The structures of these compounds were characterized using various spectroscopic methods. All the isolated compounds were screened for adipogenesis inhibition at a concentration of 100 μM. Of these, compounds 1, 2, 4-9, 15, and 19 significantly reduced fat accumulation in 3T3-L1 adipocytes, especially compounds 4, 7, 9, and 19, showing 37.05 ± 0.95, 8.60 ± 0.41 15.82 ± 1.23, and 17.73 ± 1.28% lipid content, respectively, at a concentration of 100 μM. These findings provide experimental evidence that isolates from S. sieboldii extracts exert beneficial effects regarding the regulation of adipocyte differentiation.

Gallotannin Isolated from Pericarp of Water Caltrop Ameliorates High-Fat Diet-Induced Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease in Mice

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a worldwide prevalent chronic liver disease characterized by hepatic steatosis. Water caltrop, the fruit of Trapa natan, is widely cultivated as an edible vegetable in Asian countries. In China, water caltrop pericarp has long been used as a functional food to treat metabolic syndrome, yet the bioactive substances and their pharmacological mechanisms remain unclear. In this study, a natural gallotannin, 1,2,3,6-tetra-O-galloyl-β-D-glucopyranoside (GA), was isolated from water caltrop pericarp and evaluated for its therapeutic effect on NAFLD. Treatment of GA (15 and 30 mg/kg/day) suppressed the body weight gain (p < 0.001) and ameliorated lipid deposition (p < 0.001) in high-fat diet (HFD)-induced NAFLD mice. GA was able to alleviate HFD-induced insulin resistance (p < 0.001), oxidative stress (p < 0.001), and inflammation (p < 0.001), thereby restoring the liver function in HFD-induced NAFLD mice. Mechanistically, GA diminished the aberrant signaling pathways including AMPK/SREBP/ACC, IRs-1/Akt, IKK/IκB/NF-κB in HFD-induced NAFLD mice and modified gut microbiota dysbiosis in these mice as well. The current findings suggest that GA is a promising novel agent for NAFLD therapy.

Necrosis of Microcystis aeruginosa causing tannin derivatives in Rhus chinensis stem

BACKGROUND

Algal infestation in Korean lakes, rivers, and in agroecosystems is a catastrophic problem resulting in contaminated drinking and agricultural irrigation water. Developing allelochemical-based algicides has previously faced difficulties, including dosage requirements and chemical instability. Despite these challenges, these algicides have enormous potential for eco-friendly use. This study presents the efficient use of tannin derivatives as antialgal chemicals modeled on a tannin-rich stem extract of Rhus chinensis in a thermal processing application.

RESULTS

Tannic acids are the key component of algal necrosis in R. chinensis stem extract, and although heat extraction from the stem increased the crude extraction yield 1.8-fold, the procedure induced the conversion of tannic acids to gallic acid, resulting in lower antialgal activity. Gallotannin showed stronger antialgal activity (The 50% lethal dosage (LD₅₀ )= 44.6 mg L^-1 ) than gallic acid (LD₅₀  = 99.2 mg L^-1 ), and the nonheated extract exhibited 3.7-fold lower LD₅₀ (0.66 g L^-1 ) than the heated extract (LD₅₀  = 2.45 g L^-1 ), resulting in 2.6-fold higher content of gallotannin.

CONCLUSION

These results demonstrate that heat treatment of R. chinensis stems during the extraction process is not beneficial to algal control because of the acceleration of thermal tannin degradation, despite it showing higher crude extract yields. Therefore, it is suggested extraction processes minimizing the loss of tannic acids should be the preferred methods used to develop tannin-based natural algicides for controlling algal infestation. Tannic acids showed higher toxicity into necrosis of M. aeruginosa than gallic acid where heat-processed extraction of R. chinensis stems produces more gallic acid content resulting in thermal degradation of tannic complexes than the extraction of nonthermal treatment. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Interactions between Hydrolysable Tannins and Lipid Vesicles from Escherichia coli with Isothermal Titration Calorimetry

Isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) was used to study the interactions between hydrolysable tannins (HTs) and lipid vesicles prepared from a phospholipid extract of Escherichia coli (E. coli). A group of 24 structurally different HTs was selected, and structural differences affecting their affinities to interact with lipid vesicles in aqueous buffered media were identified. In general, the interactions between HTs and lipid vesicles were exothermic in nature, and ITC as a technique functioned well in the screening of HTs for their affinity for lipids. Most notably, the galloyl moiety, the structural flexibility of the entire tannin structure, the hydrophobicity of the tannin, and higher molecular weight were observed to be important for the stronger interactions with the lipids. The strongest interactions with lipids were observed for rugosins D and G. It was also observed that some HTs with moderate hydrophobicities, such as geraniin, chebulagic acid, and chebulinic acid, did not have any detectable interactions with the lipid vesicles, suggesting that a hydrophobic structure alone does not guarantee an affinity for lipids.

All-in-One Theranostic Platform Based on Hollow Microcapsules for Intragastric-Targeting Antiulcer Drug Delivery, CT Imaging, and Synergistically Healing Gastric Ulcer

Bismuth-containing therapies are suggested as first-line and rescue alternatives for gastric ulcer (GU) treatment and Helicobacter pylori eradication. The current treatment strategy is called quadruple therapy and includes proton pump inhibitors, bismuth, and two broad-band antibiotics. This fact may affect medication compliance, leading to a resistance rate of more than 25% to clarithromycin or metronidazole. To counter this, from the perspective of natural products, an intragastric-targeting all-in-one theranostic platform is established: a drug carrier microcapsule composed of multiple synergistic antiulcer drugs, including bismuth, gallotannin, and antibiotics is obtained (BiG@MCs), and the therapeutic effects of BiG@MCs in rodent models are further evaluated. The results show that the BiG@MCs are spherical with homogeneous particle size (3 ± 0.5 µm) and can be response-released to the acidic environment of the stomach (pH 2.0-3.0), preventing the premature release of the BiG@MCs in physiological conditions. It is worth noting that the bismuth component can be easily identified by computed tomography and other detection instruments, which provide the possibility for drug tracing. In summary, these results indicate that BiG@MCs provide a versatile intragastric-targeting drug delivery platform for GU therapeutics.

Synthesis and Evaluation of Gallotannin Derivatives as Antioxidants and α-Glucosidase Inhibitors

Gallotannins are phenolic natural products containing galloyl moieties connected to polyhydric alcohol cores, e.g., D-glucose. Some gallotannins are reported to have antidiabetic properties, such as α-glucosidase inhibitory activity. In this study, fourteen unnatural gallotannin derivatives with 1,5-anhydroalditol and inositol as the cyclic polyol cores were synthesized to investigate how their structures affected antioxidative and α-glucosidase inhibitory activities. Tannic acid demonstrated the most potent antioxidative activity (EC₅₀ = 2.84 μM), with potency increasing proportionally to the number of galloyl moieties. Synthetic inositol derivatives outperformed 1,5-anhydroalditol derivatives in rat α-glucosidase inhibitory activity. Pentagalloyl glucose, a natural compound, demonstrated the highest activity (IC₅₀ = 0.336 μM).

Characterization and Identification of Bioactive Polyphenols in the Trapabispinosa Roxb. Pericarp Extract

In this study, we present the isolation and characterization of the structure of six gallotannins (1-6), three ellagitannins (7-9), a neolignan glucoside (10), and three related polyphenolic compounds (gallic acid, 11 and 12) from Trapa bispinosa Roxb. pericarp extract (TBE). Among the isolates, the structure of compound 10 possessing a previously unclear absolute configuration was unambiguously determined through nuclear magnetic resonance and circular dichroism analyses. The α-glucosidase activity and glycation inhibitory effects of the isolates were evaluated. Decarboxylated rugosin A (8) showed an α-glucosidase inhibitory activity, while hydrolyzable tannins revealed stronger antiglycation activity than that of the positive control. Furthermore, the identification and quantification of the TBE polyphenols were investigated by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to ultraviolet detection and electrospray ionization mass spectrometry analysis, indicating the predominance of gallic acid, ellagic acid, and galloyl glucoses showing marked antiglycation properties. These findings suggest that there is a potential food industry application of polyphenols in TBE as a functional food with antidiabetic and antiglycation activities.

Gallotannin from Bouea macrophylla Seed Extract Suppresses Cancer Stem-like Cells and Radiosensitizes Head and Neck Cancer

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) play a critical role in radiation resistance and recurrence. Thus, drugs targeting CSCs can be combined with radiotherapy to improve its antitumor efficacy. Here, we investigated whether a gallotannin extract from Bouea macrophylla seed (MPSE) and its main bioactive compound, pentagalloyl glucose (PGG), could suppress the stemness trait and further confer the radiosensitivity of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) cell lines. In this study, we evaluate the effect of MPSE or PGG to suppress CSC-like phenotypes and radiosensitization of HNSCC cell lines using a series of in vitro experiments, tumorsphere formation assay, colony formation assay, apoptosis assay, and Western blotting analysis. We demonstrate that MPSE or PGG is able to suppress tumorsphere formation and decrease protein expression of cancer stem cell markers. MPSE or PGG also enhanced the radiosensitivity in HNSCC cells. Pretreatment of cells with MPSE or PGG increased IR-induced DNA damage (γ-H2Ax) and enhanced radiation-induced cell death. Notably, we observed that pretreatment with MPSE or PGG attenuated the IR-induced stemness-like properties characterized by tumorsphere formation and the CD44 CSC marker. Our findings describe a novel strategy for increasing therapeutic efficacy for head and neck cancer patients using the natural products MPSE and PGG.

Cell Death by Gallotannin Is Associated with Inhibition of the JAK/STAT Pathway in Human Colon Cancer Cells

Background

Gallotannin (GT) is a polyphenol that possesses interesting anticancer properties. However, the mechanisms underlying its antitumor effects have not been well defined.

Objective

This study was designed to clarify the mechanisms underlying GT antitumor effects in colon cancer cell lines.

Methods

Three isogenic HCT116 cell lines (p53^+/+, p53^-/-, and p21^-/-) were treated with GT for different time points then Western blot, flow cytometry, and senescence analysis were performed to examine the effect of GT on Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and Janus kinase (JAK)/signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) effectors, STAT3 downstream apoptotic targets, Sub-G1 phase, and programmed cell death induction. Transfection using Invitrogen Lipofectamine 2000 Transfection Reagent (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, Massachusetts) were used to identify the role of p53 and p21 in the p53^-/- and p21^-/- cell lines.

Results

Both low and high GT concentrations caused MAPKs activation marked by upregulation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (p-ERK). The preincubation with the antioxidant Tiron (Sigma-Aldrich, St Louis, Missouri) showed that GT's antitumor effects were not mediated by reactive oxygen species. We then examined the effect of GT on the JAK/STAT pathway, which is known to be activated in colorectal cancer. GT totally inhibited the JAK/STAT pathway effectors JAK2, STAT1, and STAT3 and their downstream apoptotic regulators B-cell lymphoma-extra large (Bcl-x_L) and c-Myc in all 3 cell lines. HCT116 cancer cells exhibited differential sensitivity to GT with p21^-/- cells being the most sensitive and p53^+/+ cells that express p21 protein being the least sensitive. In p53^+/+ cells, GT induced senescence, whereas in p53^-/- and p21^-/- cells, GT induced apoptosis in a caspase independent manner marked by Poly(ADP-Ribose) Polymerase (PARP) cleavage, Bcl-2 downregulation, and upregulation of the Bcl-2 associated X (Bax) to B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) ratio. In addition, the sub-G1 phase exceeded 50% in p21^-/- cells.

Conclusions

Considered together, our results indicate that GT is potent inhibitor of the JAK/STAT pathway in colon cancer irrespective of the p53 and p21 status, which provides insights into its mechanism of anticancer activities and future potential for clinical translation. (Curr Ther Res Clin Exp. 2020; 81:XXX-XXX).

Stability of Principal Hydrolysable Tannins from Trapa taiwanensis Hulls

The fruit and hulls of the water caltrop (Trapa taiwanensis Nakai) are used as hepatoprotective herbal tea ingredients in Taiwan. The stability of hydrolysable tannins in herbal drinks has rarely been reported. In the present study, two hydrolysable tannins, tellimagrandin II (TGII) and 1,2,3,4,6-pentagalloylglucopyranose (PGG), were isolated from water caltrop hulls. The stability of the two compounds was evaluated by treatment with various pH buffer solutions, simulated gastric fluid and intestinal fluid, different temperatures, and photo-irradiation at 352 nm in different solvents. Results showed that TGII and PGG were more stable in a pH 2.0 buffer solution (with 91.88% remaining) and in a water solution with 352 nm irradiation (with 95% remaining). TGII and PGG were more stable in methanol or ethanol solutions (with >93.69% remaining) than in an aqueous solution (with <43.52% remaining) at 100 °C. In simulated gastric fluid, more than 96% of the hydrolysable tannins remained after incubation at 37 °C for 4 h. However, these hydrolysable tannins were unstable in simulated intestinal fluid, as after incubation at 37 °C for 9 h, the content of TGII had decreased to 31.40% and of PGG to 12.46%. The synthetic antioxidants, butyl hydroxy anisole (BHA), di-butyl hydroxy toluene (BHT), and propyl gallate, did not exhibit photoprotective effects on these hydrolysable tannins. However, catechin, a natural antioxidant, displayed a weak photoprotective effect. Ascorbic acid had a short-term thermal-protective effect but not a long-term protective effect. The different stability properties of hydrolysable tannins in solutions can be used in the development of related herbal teas in the future.

Gallotannin Improves the Photoaged-Related Proteins by Extracellular Signal-Regulated Kinases/c-Jun N-Terminal Kinases Signaling Pathway in Human Epidermal Keratinocyte Cells

Tannins are a type of polyphenols found in several fruits such as grapes and berries, and nuts such as aronias and acorns. Both hydrolyzable tannins and condensed tannins are referred to as tannins. Among the hydrolyzable tannins, gallotannin has a strong antioxidative property and is known to protect the skin by inhibiting the precursors of elastolytic enzymes. However, its mechanism of protection against ultraviolet B (UVB) damage in human fibroblasts and keratinocytes has not yet been elucidated. In this study, we investigate the antioxidant and antiaging effect of gallotannin on UVB-irradiated human cells by studying its effect on extracellular signal-regulated kinases/c-Jun N-terminal kinases (EKRs/JNKs) signaling related to cell growth and differentiation/stress apoptosis. The results showed that gallotannin improved collagen synthesis, reduced metalloproteinase-1 (MMP-1) expression in a dose-dependent manner, and downregulated MMP-1 levels through the ERK/JNK signaling pathway in UVB-irradiated human cells. Gallotannin also increased glutathione but did not increase transforming growth factor beta 1, which induces fibrosis. We propose that gallotannin is a novel agent for protection against UVB, and acts as an antiaging agent that can be used in food, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics.

Comprehensive analysis of telomerase inhibition by gallotannin

Gallotannin (or tannic acid) is a naturally occurring compound that inhibits cell growth and activity of different DNA-polymerases, including telomerase. The purpose of the present study was to gain insight into the mechanism of telomerase inhibition by gallotannin. We determined that gallotannin inhibits telomerase in vitro with an half maximal inhibitory concentrations value of 130 nM, but it does not affect telomerase complex assembly and component levels in vivo. The inhibitory activity of gallotannin against telomerase provides an additional explanation for the anti-cancer activities of this compound.

Identification of Phenolic Compounds in Red and Green Pistachio (Pistacia vera L.) Hulls (Exo- and Mesocarp) by HPLC-DAD-ESI-(HR)-MS(n)

Phenolic constituents of the nonlignified red and green pistachio hulls (exo- and mesocarp) were assessed by HPLC-DAD-ESI-MS(n) as well as by HR-MS. A total of 66 compounds was identified in the respective aqueous methanolic extracts. Among them, gallic acid, monogalloyl glucoside, monogalloyl quinic acid, penta-O-galloyl-β-d-glucose, hexagalloyl hexose, quercetin 3-O-galactoside, quercetin 3-O-glucoside, quercetin 3-O-glucuronide, and (17:1)-, (13:0)-, and (13:1)-anacardic acids were detected at highest signal intensity. The main difference between red and green hulls was the presence of anthocyanins in the former ones. Differently galloylated hydrolyzable tannins, anthocyanins, and minor anacardic acids were identified for the first time. Pistachio hulls were thus shown to be a source of structurally diverse and potentially bioactive phenolic compounds. They therefore represent a valuable byproduct of pistachio processing having potential for further utilization as raw material for the recovery of pharmaceutical, nutraceutical, and chemical products.

Gallotannin is a DNA damaging compound that induces senescence independently of p53 and p21 in human colon cancer cells

The plant secondary metabolite gallotannin (GT) is the simplest hydrolyzable tannin shown to have anti-carcinogenic properties in several cell lines and to inhibit tumor development in different animal models. Here, we determined if GT induces senescence and DNA damage and investigated the involvement of p53 and p21 in this response. Using HCT116 human colon cancer cells wildtype for p53(+/+) /p21(+/+) and null for p53(+/+) /p21(-/-) or p53(-/-) /p21(+/+) , we found that GT induces senescence independently of p21 and p53. GT was found to increase the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by altering the redox balance in the cell, mainly by reducing the levels of glutathione and superoxide dismutase (SOD). Using the key antioxidants N-acetyl cysteine, dithiothreitol, SOD, and catalase, we showed that ROS were partially involved in the senescence response. Furthermore, GT-induced cell cycle arrest in S-phase in all HCT116 cell lines. At later time points, we noticed that p53 and p21 null cells escaped complete arrest and re-entered cell cycle provoking higher rates of multinucleation. The senescence induction by GT was irreversible and was accompanied by significant DNA damage as evidenced by p-H2AX staining. Our findings indicate that GT is an interesting anti colon cancer agent which warrants further study.

Hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity of gallotannin-enriched extract isolated from Galla Rhois in ICR mice

To evaluate the hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity of Galla Rhois (GR) toward the liver and kidney of ICR mice, alterations in related markers including body weight, organ weight, urine composition, liver pathology and kidney pathology were analyzed after oral administration of 250, 500 and 1,000 mg/kg body weight/day of gallotannin-enriched extract of GR (GEGR) for 14 days. GEGR contained 68.7±2.5% of gallotannin, 25.3±0.9% of gallic acid and 4.4±0.1% of methyl gallate. Also, the level of malondialdehyde (MDA), a marker of lipid peroxidation, was decreased with 19% in the serum of high dose GEGR (HGEGR)-treated mice. The body and organ weight, clinical phenotypes, urine parameters and mice mortality did not differ among GEGR-treated groups and the vehicle-treated group. Furthermore, no significant increase was observed in alkaline phosphatase (ALP), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and the serum creatinine (Cr) in the GEGR-treated group relative to the vehicle-treated group. Moreover, the specific pathological features induced by most toxic compounds such as CCl4 were not observed upon liver and kidney histological analysis. Overall, the results of the present study suggest that GEGR does not induce any specific toxicity in liver and kidney organs of ICR at doses of 1,000 mg/kg body weight/day, indicating that this is no observed adverse effect level (NOAEL).

Suppression of E-cadherin mediates gallotannin induced apoptosis in Hep G2 hepatocelluar carcinoma cells

Though gallotannin was known to have anti-oxidant and antitumor activity, the underlying antitumor mechanism of gallotannin still remains unclear. Thus, in the present study, antitumor mechanism of gallotannin was elucidated in hepatocellular carcinoma cells. Gallotannin significantly exerted cytotoxicity against Hep G2 and Chang hepatocellular carcinoma cells with the accumulation of the sub-G1 population and increase of terminal deoxynucleotidyltransferasedUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) positive cells as an apoptotic feature. Also, gallotannin attenuated the expression of pro-caspase9, pro-caspase3, Bcl2 and integrin β1 and cleaved poly(ADP)-ribose polymerase (PARP) in Hep G2 and Chang cancer cells. Furthermore, gallotannin suppressed cell repair motility by wound healing assay and also inhibited cell adhesion in Hep G2 cells. Of note, gallotannin attenuated the expression of epithelial cadherin (E-cadherin) to form cell-cell adhesion from the early stage, and also beta-catenin at late phase in Hep G2 cells. Consistently, Immunofluorescence assay showed that E-cadherin or β-catenin expression was suppressed in a time dependent manner by gallotannin. Furthermore, silencing of E-cadherin by siRNA transfection method enhanced PAPR cleavage, caspase 3 activation and sub G1 population and attenuated the cell adhesion induced by gallotannin in Hep G2 cells. Overall, our findings demonstrate that the disruption of cell adhesion junction by suppression of E-cadherin mediates gallotannin enhanced apoptosis in Hep G2 liver cancer cells.

Maintaining energy homeostasis is an essential component of Wld(S)-mediated axon protection

Wld(S) mutation protects axons from degeneration in diverse experimental models of neurological disorders, suggesting that the mutation might act on a key step shared by different axon degeneration pathways. Here we test the hypothesis that Wld(S) protects axons by preventing energy deficiency commonly encountered in many diseases. We subjected compartmentally cultured, mouse cortical axons to energy deprivation with 6mM azide and zero glucose. In wild-type (WT) culture, the treatment, which reduced axon ATP level ([ATP]axon) by 65%, caused immediate axon depolarization followed by gradual free calcium accumulation and subsequent irreversible axon damage. The calcium accumulation resulted from calcium influx partially via L-type voltage-gated calcium channel (L-VGCC). Blocking L-VGCC with nimodipine reduced calcium accumulation and protected axons. Without altering baseline [ATP]axon, the presence of Wld(S) mutation significantly reduced the axon ATP loss and depolarization, restrained the subsequent calcium accumulation, and protected axons against energy deprivation. Wld(S) neurons possessed higher than normal nicotinamide mononucleotide adenylyltransferase (NMNAT) activity. The intrinsic Wld(S) NMNAT activity was required for the Wld(S)-mediated energy preservation and axon protection during but not prior to energy deprivation. NMNAT catalyzes the reversible reaction that produces nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) from nicotinamide mononucleotide (NMN). Interestingly, preventing the production of NAD from NMN with FK866 increased [ATP]axon and protected axons from energy deprivation. These results indicate that the Wld(S) mutation depends on its intrinsic Wld(S) NMNAT activity and the subsequent increase in axon ATP but not NAD to protect axons, implicating a novel role of Wld(S) NMNAT in axon bioenergetics and protection.

Anti-cancer, anti-diabetic and other pharmacologic and biological activities of penta-galloyl-glucose

1, 2, 3, 4, 6-penta-O-galloyl-beta-D-glucose (PGG) is a polyphenolic compound highly enriched in a number of medicinal herbals. Several in vitro and a handful of in vivo studies have shown that PGG exhibits multiple biological activities which implicate a great potential for PGG in the therapy and prevention of several major diseases including cancer and diabetes. Chemically and functionally, PGG appears to be distinct from its constituent gallic acid or tea polyphenols. For anti-cancer activity, three published in vivo preclinical cancer model studies with PGG support promising efficacy to selectively inhibit malignancy without host toxicity. Potential mechanisms include anti-angiogenesis; anti-proliferative actions through inhibition of DNA replicative synthesis, S-phase arrest, and G(1) arrest; induction of apoptosis; anti-inflammation; and anti-oxidation. Putative molecular targets include p53, Stat3, Cox-2, VEGFR1, AP-1, SP-1, Nrf-2, and MMP-9. For anti-diabetic activity, PGG and analogues appear to improve glucose uptake. However, very little is known about the absorption, pharmacokinetics, and metabolism of PGG, or its toxicity profile. The lack of a large quantity of highly pure PGG has been a bottleneck limiting in vivo validation of cancer preventive and therapeutic efficacies in clinically relevant models.

Poly(ADP-ribose) glycohydrolase mediates oxidative and excitotoxic neuronal death

Excessive activation of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP1) leads to NAD(+) depletion and cell death during ischemia and other conditions that generate extensive DNA damage. When activated by DNA strand breaks, PARP1 uses NAD(+) as substrate to form ADP-ribose polymers on specific acceptor proteins. These polymers are in turn rapidly degraded by poly(ADP-ribose) glycohydrolase (PARG), a ubiquitously expressed exo- and endoglycohydrolase. In this study, we examined the role of PARG in the PARP1-mediated cell death pathway. Mouse neuron and astrocyte cultures were exposed to hydrogen peroxide, N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA), or the DNA alkylating agent, N-methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine (MNNG). Cell death in each condition was markedly reduced by the PARP1 inhibitor benzamide and equally reduced by the PARG inhibitors gallotannin and nobotanin B. The PARP1 inhibitor benzamide and the PARG inhibitor gallotannin both prevented the NAD(+) depletion that otherwise results from PARP1 activation by MNNG or H(2)O(2). However, these agents had opposite effects on protein poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation. Immunostaining for poly(ADP-ribose) on Western blots and neuron cultures showed benzamide to decrease and gallotannin to increase poly(ADP-ribose) accumulation during MNNG exposure. These results suggest that PARG inhibitors do not inhibit PARP1 directly, but instead prevent PARP1-mediated cell death by slowing the turnover of poly(ADP-ribose) and thus slowing NAD(+) consumption. PARG appears to be a necessary component of the PARP-mediated cell death pathway, and PARG inhibitors may have promise as neuroprotective agents.