Acute and delayed response to resistance exercise leading or not leading to muscle failure

This study compared the time course of recovery following two resistance exercise protocols differing in the number of repetitions per set with regard to the maximum possible (to failure) number. Ten men performed three sets of 6 versus 12 repetitions with their 70% 1RM (3 × 6 [12] versus 3 × 12 [12]) in the bench press (BP) and squat (SQ) exercises. Mechanical [CMJ height, velocity against the 1 m s^-1 load (V₁ -load)], biochemical [testosterone, cortisol, growth hormone, prolactin, insulin-like growth factor-1, creatine kinase (CK)] and heart rate variability (HRV) and complexity (HRC) were assessed pre-, postexercise (Post) and at 6, 24 and 48 h-Post. Compared with 3 × 6 [12], the 3 × 12 [12] protocol resulted in significantly: higher repetition velocity loss within each set (BP: 65% versus 26%; SQ: 44% versus 20%); reduced V₁ -load until 24 h-Post (BP) and 6 h-Post (SQ); decreased CMJ height up to 48 h-Post; greater increases in cortisol (Post), prolactin (Post, 48 h-Post) and CK (48 h-Post); and reductions in HRV and HRC at Post. This study shows that the mechanical, neuroendocrine and autonomic cardiovascular response is markedly different when manipulating the number of repetitions per set. Halving the number of repetitions in relation to the maximum number that can be completed serves to minimize fatigue and speed up recovery following resistance training.

Gender-specific expression of GIBBERELLIC ACID INSENSITIVE is critical for unisexual organ initiation in dioecious Spinacia oleracea

While unisexual flowers have evolved repeatedly throughout angiosperm families, the actual identification of sex-determining genes has been elusive, and their regulation within populations remains largely undefined. Here, we tested the mechanism of the feminization pathway in cultivated spinach (Spinacia oleracea), and investigated how this pathway may regulate alternative sexual development. We tested the effect of gibberellic acid (GA) on sex determination through exogenous applications of GA and inhibitors of GA synthesis and proteasome activity. GA concentrations in multiple tissues were estimated by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay analysis. Gene function was investigated and pathway analysis was performed through virus-induced gene silencing. Relative gene expression levels were estimated by quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. Inhibition of GA production and proteasome activity feminized male flowers. However, there was no difference in GA content in tissues between males and females. We characterized a single DELLA family transcription factor gene (GIBBERELLIC ACID INSENSITIVE (SpGAI)) and observed inflorescence expression in females two-fold higher than in males. Reduction of SpGAI expression in females to male levels phenocopied exogenous GA application with respect to flower development. These results implicate SpGAI as the feminizing factor in spinach, and suggest that the feminizing pathway is epistatic to the masculinizing pathway. We present a unified model for alternative sexual development and discuss the implications for established theory.

Evasion of Plant Innate Defense Response by Salmonella on Lettuce

To establish host association, the innate immune system, which is one of the first lines of defense against infectious disease, must be circumvented. Plants encounter enteric foodborne bacterial pathogens under both pre- and post-harvest conditions. Human enteric foodborne pathogens can use plants as temporary hosts. This unique interaction may result in recalls and illness outbreaks associated with raw agricultural commodities. The purpose of this study was to determine if Salmonella enterica Typhimurium applied to lettuce leaves can suppress the innate stomatal defense in lettuce and utilization of UD1022 as a biocontrol against this ingression. Lettuce leaves were spot inoculated with S. Typhimurium wild type and its mutants. Bacterial culture and confocal microscopy analysis of stomatal apertures were used to support findings of differences in S. Typhimurium mutants compared to wild type. The persistence and internalization of these strains on lettuce was compared over a 7-day trial. S. Typhimurium may bypass the innate stomatal closure defense response in lettuce. Interestingly, a few key T3SS components in S. Typhimurium were involved in overriding stomatal defense response in lettuce for ingression. We also show that the T3SS in S. Typhimurium plays a critical role in persistence of S. Typhimurium in planta. Salmonella populations were significantly reduced in all UD1022 groups by day 7 with the exception of fliB and invA mutants. Salmonella internalization was not detected in plants after UD1022 treatment and had significantly higher stomatal closure rates (aperture width = 2.34 μm) by day 1 compared to controls (8.5 μm). S. Typhimurium SPI1 and SPI2 mutants showed inability to reopen stomates in lettuce suggesting the involvement of key T3SS components in suppression of innate response in plants. These findings impact issues of contamination related to plant performance and innate defense responses for plants.

Diffuse optical spectroscopy measurements of healing in breast tissue after core biopsy: case study

Diffuse optical spectroscopy (DOS) has been used to monitor and predict the effects of neoadjuvant (i.e., presurgical) chemotherapy in breast cancer patients in several pilot studies. Because patients with suspected breast cancers undergo biopsy prior to treatment, it is important to understand how biopsy trauma influences DOS measurements in the breast. The goal of this study was to measure the effects of a standard core breast biopsy on DOS measurements of tissue deoxyhemoglobin, hemoglobin, water, and bulk lipid concentrations. We serially monitored postbiopsy effects in the breast tissue in a single subject (31-year-old premenopausal female) with a 37x18x20 mm fibroadenoma. A baseline measurement and eight weekly postbiopsy measurements were taken with a handheld DOS imaging instrument. Our instrument used frequency domain photon migration combined with broadband steady-state spectroscopy to characterize tissues via quantitative measurements of tissue absorption and reduced scattering coefficients from 650 to 1000 nm. The concentrations of significant near-infrared (NIR) absorbers were mapped within a 50 cm(2) area over the biopsied region. A 2-D image of a contrast function called the tissue optical index (TOI=deoxyhemoglobinxwaterbulk lipid) was generated and revealed that a minimum of 14 days postbiopsy was required to return TOI levels in the biopsied area to their prebiopsy levels. Changes in the TOI images of the fibroadenoma also reflected the progression of the patient's menstrual cycle. DOS could therefore be useful in evaluating both wound-healing response and the effects of hormone and hormonal therapies in vivo.

Impact of a 4-Week Intensified Endurance Training Intervention on Markers of Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S) and Performance Among Well-Trained Male Cyclists

Cyclists often apply block periodization to high training volumes in meso- and macrocycles to optimize training adaptation and to prepare for competition. Body mass influences performance in many sports, including endurance disciplines, and conditions related to the syndrome Relative Energy Deficiency in Sports (RED-S) such as metabolic adaptations and premature osteoporosis have also been reported in male cyclists. This study aimed to determine how a 4-week mesocycle of intensified endurance training designed to increase performance, would affect markers of RED-S in well-trained male cyclists. Twenty-two participants (age: 33.5 ± 6.6 years, height: 181.4 ± 5.2 cm, weight: 76.5 ± 7.4 kg, peak oxygen uptake (VO_2peak): 63.5 ± 6.6 mL·kg^-1·min^-1) were recruited and instructed to maintain their background training load and to follow a supervised training protocol consisting of three high-intensity interval training sessions per week with a work duration of 32 min per session. Protocols included pre- and postintervention assessment of resting metabolic rate (RMR) using a ventilated hood, body composition and bone health by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA), blood samples, energy intake, and aerobic performance. The interval training increased participants' aerobic performance-peak power output [4.8%, p < 0.001], VO_2peak [2.4%, p = 0.005], and functional threshold power [6.5%, p < 0.001] as well as total testosterone levels [8.1%, p = 0.011]-while no changes were observed in free testosterone [4.1%, p = 0.326]. Bodyweight, body composition, and energy intake were unchanged from pre- to post-test. Triiodothyronine (T₃) [4.8%, p = 0.008], absolute RMR [3.0%, p = 0.010], relative RMR [2.6%, p = 0.013], and RMR_ratio [3.3%, p = 0.011] decreased, and cortisol levels increased [12.9%, p = 0.021], while no change were observed in the total testosterone:cortisol ratio [1.6%, p = 0.789] or the free testosterone:cortisol (fT:cor) ratio [3.2%, p = 0.556]. A subgroup analysis of the five participants with the largest increase in fT:cor ratio, revealed a greater improvement in functional threshold power (9.5 vs. 2.5%, p = 0.037), and higher relative RMR (0.6 vs. -4.2% p = 0.039, respectively). In conclusion, 4 weeks of intensified endurance interval training increased the athletes' aerobic performance and testosterone levels. However, negative changes in markers related to RED-S, such as a reduction in RMR and T₃, and an increase in cortisol were observed. These results indicate the complexity involved, and that male athletes are at risk of developing clinical indications of RED-S even during a short 4-week endurance training mesocycle.

The Effects of 6 Weeks of Tribulus terrestris L. Supplementation on Body Composition, Hormonal Response, Perceived Exertion, and CrossFit® Performance: A Randomized, Single-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study

Tribulus terrestris L. (TT) supplementation have been shown to enhance sports performance in many but not all studies. Moreover, data regarding the potential impact of TT supplementation on CrossFit® endurance is limited. This study aimed to determine whether TT supplementation improve body composition, hormonal response, and performance among CrossFit® athletes. In a randomized, single-blind, placebo-controlled trial, a total of 30 healthy CrossFit®-trained males were randomly allocated to receive either 770 mg of TT supplementation or a placebo daily for 6 weeks. Body mass, fat mass, fat composition, testosterone and cortisol levels, and CrossFit® performance (5 common Workouts of the Day: back squat, bench press, dead lift, Grace, and CrossFit® Total) were assessed before and after intervention. There were no significant group x time interactions for the outcomes of the study except for testosterone levels and bench press performance (p < 0.05). TT supplementation did not impact enhance performance or body composition in CrossFit® male athletes. However, TT supplementation may act as a testosterone booster helping the recovery after physical loads and mitigating fatigue.

Sex- and age-dependent differences in the hormone and drinking responses to water deprivation

Maintenance of the volume and osmolality of body fluids is important, and the adaptive responses recruited to protect against osmotic stress are crucial for survival. The objective of this work was to compare the responses that occur in aging male and female rats during water deprivation. For this purpose, groups of male and female Wistar rats aged 3 mo (adults) or 18 mo (old) were submitted to water deprivation (WD) for 48 h. The water and sodium (0.15 M NaCl) intake, plasma concentrations of oxytocin (OT), arginine vasopressin (AVP), corticosterone (CORT), atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and angiotensin II (ANG II) were determined in hydrated and water-deprived animals. In response to WD, old male and female rats drank less water and saline than adults, and both adult and old females drank more water and saline than respective males. Dehydrated old animals displayed lower ANG II plasma concentration and CORT response compared with the respective normohydrated rats. Dehydrated adult males had higher plasma ANP and AVP as well as lower CORT concentrations than dehydrated adult females. Moreover, plasma OT and CORT levels of old female rats were higher than those in the dehydrated old male rats. Relative expression of ANG II type 1 receptor mRNA was decreased in the subfornical organ of adult and old male rats as well as adult female rats in response to WD. In conclusion, the study elucidated the effect of sex and age on responses induced by WD, altering the degree of dehydration induced by 48 h of WD.

Effects of Dominance and Sprint Interval Exercise on Testosterone and Cortisol Levels in Strength-, Endurance-, and Non-Training Men

The aim of the study was to investigate the response of testosterone and cortisol to sprint interval exercises (SIEs) and to determine the role of dominance. The experiment was conducted in a group of 96 men, divided into endurance-training, strength-training, and non-training groups. Participants performed SIEs consisting of 5 × 10-s all-out bouts with a 50-s active recovery. Using the passive drool method, testosterone and cortisol concentrations were measured in saliva samples at rest at 10 min pre and 12 min post exercise. Participants’ heart rate (HR) was measured during the whole exercise. Dominance was assessed by the participants before the study; the rating of perceived exertion (RPE) was measured immediately after each bout. The study showed that those who trained in endurance and strength sports had significantly lower mean HRs after five acute 10-s interval bouts than those in the non-training group (p = 0.006 and p = 0.041, respectively). Dominance has an inverse relation to changes in HR; however, it has no relation to hormone response. No significant differences were observed in testosterone and cortisol changes in the endurance-training, strength-training, and non-training groups after SIE (p > 0.05), which may indicate that the exercise volume was too low.

Reorganization of three-dimensional chromatin architecture in Medicago truncatula under phosphorus deficiency

Emerging evidence reveals that the three-dimensional (3D) chromatin architecture plays a key regulatory role in various biological processes of plants. However, information on the 3D chromatin architecture of the legume model plant Medicago truncatula and its potential roles in the regulation of response to mineral nutrient deficiency are very limited. Using high-resolution chromosome conformation capture sequencing, we identified the 3D genome structure of M. truncatula in terms of A/B compartments, topologically associated domains (TADs) and chromatin loops. The gene density, expressional level, and active histone modification were higher in A compartments than in B compartments. Moreover, we analysed the 3D chromatin architecture reorganization in response to phosphorus (P) deficiency. The intra-chromosomal cis-interaction proportion was increased by P deficiency, and a total of 748 A/B compartment switch regions were detected. In these regions, density changes in H3K4me3 and H3K27ac modifications were associated with expression of P deficiency-responsive genes involved in root system architecture and hormonal responses. Furthermore, these genes enhanced P uptake and mobilization by increasing root surface area and strengthening signal transduction under P deficiency. These findings advance our understanding of the potential roles of 3D chromatin architecture in responses of plants in general, and in particular in M. truncatula, to P deficiency.

Sexual phenotype drives variation in endocrine responses to social challenge in a quasi-clonal animal

In many species, males tend to behave more aggressively than females and female aggression often occurs during particular life stages such as maternal defence of offspring. Though many studies have revealed differences in aggression between the sexes, few studies have compared the sexes in terms of their neuroendocrine responses to contest experience. We investigated sex differences in the endocrine response to social challenge using mangrove rivulus fish, Kryptolebias marmoratus. In this species, sex is determined environmentally, allowing us to produce males and hermaphrodites with identical genotypes. We hypothesized that males would show elevated androgen levels (testosterone and 11-ketotestosterone) following social challenge but that hermaphrodite responses might be constrained by having to maintain both testicular and ovarian tissue. To test this hypothesis, we staged fights between males and between hermaphrodites, and then compared contest behaviour and hormone responses between the sexes. Hermaphrodites had significantly higher oestradiol but lower 11-ketotestosterone than males before contests. Males took longer to initiate contests but tended to fight more aggressively and sustain longer fights than hermaphrodites. Males showed a dramatic post-fight increase in 11-ketotestosterone but hermaphrodites did not. Thus, despite being genetically identical, males and hermaphrodites exhibit dramatically different fighting strategies and endocrine responses to contests.

Prevalence of Surrogate Markers of Relative Energy Deficiency in Male Norwegian Olympic-Level Athletes

The syndrome of Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S) includes wide-ranging effects on physiological and psychological functioning, performance, and general health. However, RED-S is understudied among male athletes at the highest performance levels. This cross-sectional study aimed to investigate surrogate RED-S markers prevalence in Norwegian male Olympic-level athletes. Athletes (n = 44) aged 24.7 ± 3.8 years, body mass 81.3 ± 15.9 kg, body fat 13.7% ± 5.8%, and training volume 76.1 ± 22.9 hr/month were included. Assessed parameters included resting metabolic rate (RMR), body composition, and bone mineral density by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry and venous blood variables (testosterone, free triiodothyronine, cortisol, and lipids). Seven athletes (16%) grouped by the presence of low RMR (RMRratio < 0.90) (0.81 ± 0.07 vs. 1.04 ± 0.09, p < .001, effect size 2.6), also showed lower testosterone (12.9 ± 5.3 vs. 19.0 ± 5.3 nmol/L, p = .020) than in normal RMR group. In low RMRratio individuals, prevalence of other RED-S markers (-subclinical-low testosterone, low free triiodothyronine, high cortisol, and elevated low-density lipoprotein) was (N/number of markers): 2/0, 2/1, 2/2, 1/3. Low bone mineral density (z-score < -1) was found in 16% of the athletes, all with normal RMR. Subclinical low testosterone and free triiodothyronine levels were found in nine (25%) and two (5%) athletes, respectively. Subclinical high cortisol was found in 23% of athletes while 34% had elevated low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels. Seven of 12 athletes with two or more RED-S markers had normal RMR. In conclusion, this study found that multiple RED-S markers also exist in male Olympic-level athletes. This highlights the importance of regular screening of male elite athletes, to ensure early detection and treatment of RED-S.

Biological Responses to Short-Term Maximal Exercise in Male Police Officers

The specifics of short-term physical exercise are similar to the immediate reaction demands placed on police officers. Identifying the physiological predisposition to short-term high-intensity exercise in male law enforcement officers will assist in understanding their metabolism and make a significant contribution to a much more personal and individualized workout program. This will improve physical fitness of individual officers, improving their preparedness for such times of emergency. This cross-sectional study was conducted to investigate the responses of hematological (erythrocytes, hemoglobin, hematocrit, leucocytes, monocytes, neutrophils, lymphocytes), hormonal (testosterone, cortisol, melatonin), biochemical (glucose, uric-acid, lactate, creatine-phosphokinase) data to short-term maximal exercise in male police officers (n = 20). Blood samples were collected before- and after- the running-based anaerobic sprint test (RAST), and biological values were corrected for fluid shifts. Data were mean ± standard deviation of differences (= after minus before RAST). After the RAST, values of cortisol, lactate, neutrophils, lymphocytes, and monocytes increased significantly by 7.01 ± 37.36 mmol/l, 7.55 ± 1.67 mmol/l, 0.17 ± 0.26 103/µl, 0.61 ± 0.28 103/µl, and 0.10 ± 0.13 103/µl, respectively. After the RAST, values of melatonin, uric-acid, creatine-phosphokinase, hemoglobin, and hematocrit decreased significantly by -13.24 ± 4.60 pg/ml, -13.28 ± 14.35 µmol/l, -10.23 ± 10.13 IU/l, -2.01 ± 0.81 g/dl, and -4.46 ± 0.59%, respectively. Biological data of male police officers were affected by sprint test. Understanding changes in biological data following short-term maximal exercise can further assist in a better understanding of anaerobic metabolism, which will be helpful to find available methods for coaches to quantify training loads.

Identification and Evolutionary Analysis of the Auxin Response Factor (ARF) Family Based on Transcriptome Data from Caucasian Clover and Analysis of Expression Responses to Hormones

Caucasian clover (Trifolium ambiguum M. Bieb.) is an excellent perennial plant in the legume family Fabaceae, with a well-developed rhizome and strong clonal growth. Auxin is one of the most important phytohormones in plants and plays an important role in plant growth and development. Auxin response factor (ARF) can regulate the expression of auxin-responsive genes, thus participating in multiple pathways of auxin transduction signaling in a synergistic manner. No genomic database has been established for Caucasian clover. In this study, 71 TaARF genes were identified through a transcriptomic database of Caucasian clover rhizome development. Phylogenetic analysis grouped the TaARFs into six (1-6) clades. Thirty TaARFs contained a complete ARF structure, including three relatively conserved regions. Physical and chemical property analysis revealed that TaARFs are unstable and hydrophilic proteins. We also analyzed the expression pattern of TaARFs in different tissues (taproot, horizontal rhizome, swelling of taproot, rhizome bud and rhizome bud tip). Quantitative real-time RT-PCR revealed that all TaARFs were responsive to phytohormones (indole-3-acetic acid, gibberellic acid, abscisic acid and methyl jasmonate) in roots, stems and leaves. These results helped elucidate the role of ARFs in responses to different hormone treatments in Caucasian clover.

The Effects of Incorporating Dry-land Short Intervals to Long Aerobic-dominant In-Water Swimming Training on Physiological Parameters, Hormonal Factors, and Performance: A Randomized-Controlled Intervention Study

This study investigated the impact of a 4-week dry-land short sprint interval program (sSIT) on a swim ergometer, when incorporated into long aerobic-dominant in-water swimming training, on the physiological parameters, hormonal factors, and swimming performance of well-trained swimmers. Sixteen participants (age = 25 ± 6 years, height = 183 ± 6 cm, weight 78 ± 6 kg, body fat = 10.6 ± 3.1%) were randomized to either a long aerobic-dominant in-pool training plus three sessions/week of sSIT or a control group (CON) who didn't engage in SIT. sSIT consisted of 3 sets of 10 × 4 s, 10 × 6 s, and 10 × 8 s all-out sprints interspersed by 15, 60, and 40 s recovery between each sprint, respectively. Pre- and post-training assessments included peak oxygen uptake (V̇O2peak), O2pulse (V̇O2/HR), ventilation at V̇O2peak (V̇E@V̇O2peak), peak and average power output, and freestyle swim performance at 50, 100, and 200-m distances, stroke rate, as well as testosterone and cortisol. sSIT resulted in significant improvements in V̇O2peak (5.8%), O2pulse (4.7%), V̇E@V̇O2peak (7.1%), peak and average power output (6.7% and 13.8%, respectively), total testosterone (20%), testosterone to cortisol ratio (16.1%), and 50, 100, and 200-m freestyle swimming performance (-2.2%, -1.2%, and -1.1%, respectively). Furthermore, the observed alterations in the physiological, biochemical, and performance adaptations were significantly more substantial in the sSIT group than the CON group (p ≤ 0.05), demonstrating no modifications during the 4-week long aerobic-dominant in-water swimming without sSIT. The current research effectively established that supplementing standard long aerobic-dominant in-water swim training with three weekly dry-land sSIT sessions triggers adaptive mechanisms that foster enhancements in the aerobic and anaerobic capacity and swimming performance in well-trained swimmers.

Characterization of Plant Homeodomain Transcription Factor Genes Involved in Flower Development and Multiple Abiotic Stress Response in Pepper

Plant homeodomain (PHD) transcription factor genes are involved in plant development and in a plant's response to stress. However, there are few reports about this gene family in peppers (Capsicum annuum L.). In this study, the pepper inbred line "Zunla-1" was used as the reference genome, and a total of 43 PHD genes were identified, and systematic analysis was performed to study the chromosomal location, evolutionary relationship, gene structure, domains, and upstream cis-regulatory elements of the CaPHD genes. The fewest CaPHD genes were located on chromosome 4, while the most were on chromosome 3. Genes with similar gene structures and domains were clustered together. Expression analysis showed that the expression of CaPHD genes was quite different in different tissues and in response to various stress treatments. The expression of CaPHD17 was different in the early stage of flower bud development in the near-isogenic cytoplasmic male-sterile inbred and the maintainer inbred lines. It is speculated that this gene is involved in the development of male sterility in pepper. CaPHD37 was significantly upregulated in leaves and roots after heat stress, and it is speculated that CaPHD37 plays an important role in tolerating heat stress in pepper; in addition, CaPHD9, CaPHD10, CaPHD11, CaPHD17, CaPHD19, CaPHD20, and CaPHD43 were not sensitive to abiotic stress or hormonal factors. This study will provide the basis for further research into the function of CaPHD genes in plant development and responses to abiotic stresses and hormones.

Does elite European match-play affect salivary immunoglobulin-A and cortisol in soccer players? The influence of playing status and match outcome

Introduction: The aims of this study were to: a) investigate salivary immunoglobulin A (s-IgA) and cortisol (s-Cort) responses to nine competitive fixtures in starting and non- starting soccer players; and b) compare s-IgA and s-Cort responses of starters and non-starters considering match outcome. Methods: Saliva from 19 male outfield players from an elite soccer team (mean ± SD, age 26 ± 4 years; weight 80.5 ± 8.1 kg; height 1.83 ± 0.07 m; body-fat 10.8% ± 0.7%) was collected. Saliva samples were taken on the day before each match (MD-1), 60-min before kick-off (MDpre), 30-min post-match (MDpost), and 72-h post-match (MD+3). There were five wins, one draw and three losses. Results: The mean s-IgA value was found to be significantly lower at MD+3 compared to MDpre and MDpost. s-Cort was significantly higher at MDpost compared to MD-1 and MDpre. When compared to MDpre, a statistically significant decrease in s-Cort was observed at MD+3 compared to MDpost. Starters displayed higher s-Cort values across the nine matches. There was a significant group-by-time interaction for s-Cort. There was a significant increase in s-Cort levels at MDpost compared to MD-1 and from MDpre to MDpost in starting players. At MDpost, starters had significantly higher s-Cort values. s-IgA values of starting and non- starting players following successful and unsuccessful matches did not reveal a significant difference. However, similar analysis of s-Cort in successful matches showed a significant difference between starters and non-starters. s-IgA values at MD-1, MDpre, MDpost and MD+3 in starters and non-starters following successful and unsuccessful matches revealed significant differences at MDpre and MDpost in starters, respectively. Furthermore, s-Cort values at MD-1, MDpre, MDpost and MD+3 in starters and non-starters in successful and unsuccessful matches revealed significant differences at MD+3 in starting players. Discussion: The present study suggests that in elite level soccer players, both starting status and match outcome influence s-IgA and s-Cort responses, particularly starters. Specifically, s-IgA was lower for starters before and after the match following successful outcomes. Moreover, higher s-Cort values were found before the match while lower values occurred after the match for starters in successful matches.

Glutamine Synthetase and Glutamate Synthase Family Perform Diverse Physiological Functions in Exogenous Hormones and Abiotic Stress Responses in Pyrus betulifolia Bunge (P.be)

The unscientific application of nitrogen (N) fertilizer not only increases the economic input of pear growers but also leads to environmental pollution. Improving plant N use efficiency (NUE) is the most effective economical method to solve the above problems. The absorption and utilization of N by plants is a complicated process. Glutamine synthetase (GS) and glutamate synthase (GOGAT) are crucial for synthesizing glutamate from ammonium in plants. However, their gene family in pears has not been documented. This study identified 29 genes belonging to the GS and GOGAT family in the genomes of Pyrus betulaefolia (P.be, 10 genes), Pyrus pyrifolia (P.py, 9 genes), and Pyrus bretschneideri (P.br, 10 genes). These genes were classified into two GS subgroups (GS1 and GS2) and two GOGAT subgroups (Fd-GOGAT and NADH-GOGAT). The similar exon-intron structures and conserved motifs within each cluster suggest the evolutionary conservation of these genes. Meanwhile, segmental duplication has driven the expansion and evolution of the GS and GOGAT gene families in pear. The tissue-specific expression dynamics of PbeGS and PbeGOGAT genes suggest significant roles in pear growth and development. Cis-acting elements of the GS and GOGAT gene promoters are crucial for plant development, hormonal responses, and stress reactions. Furthermore, qRT-PCR analysis indicated that PbeGSs and PbeGOGATs showed differential expression under exogenous hormones (GA3, IAA, SA, ABA) and abiotic stress (NO3- and salt stress). In which, the expression of PbeGS2.2 was up-regulated under hormone treatment and down-regulated under salt stress. Furthermore, physiological experiments demonstrated that GA3 and IAA promoted GS, Fd-GOGAT, and NADH-GOGAT enzyme activities, as well as the N content. Correlation analysis revealed a significant positive relationship between PbeGS1.1, PbeGS2.2, PbeNADH-GOGATs, and the N content. Therefore, PbeGS1.1, PbeGS2.2, and PbeNADH-GOGATs could be key candidate genes for improving NUE under plant hormone and abiotic stress response. To the best of our knowledge, our study provides valuable biological information about the GS and GOGAT family in the pear for the first time and establishes a foundation for molecular breeding aimed at developing high NUE pear rootstocks.

Potential cellular endocrinology mechanisms underlying the effects of Chinese herbal medicine therapy on asthma

Asthma is a complex syndrome with polygenetic tendency and multiple phenotypes, which has variable expiratory airflow limitation and respiratory symptoms that vary over time and in intensity. In recent years, continuous industrial development has seriously impacted the climate and air quality at a global scale. It has been verified that climate change can induce asthma in predisposed individuals and that atmospheric pollution can exacerbate asthma severity. At present, a subset of patients is resistant to the drug therapy for asthma. Hence, it is urgent to find new ideas for asthma prevention and treatment. In this review, we discuss the prescription, composition, formulation, and mechanism of traditional Chinese medicine monomer, traditional Chinese medicine monomer complex, single herbs, and traditional Chinese patent medicine in the treatment of asthma. We also discuss the effects of Chinese herbal medicine on asthma from the perspective of cellular endocrinology in the past decade, emphasizing on the roles as intracellular and extracellular messengers of three substances-hormones, substances secreted by pulmonary neuroendocrine cells, and neuroendocrine-related signaling protein-which provide the theoretical basis for clinical application and new drug development.

Effects of Normobaric Hypoxia of Varying Severity on Metabolic and Hormonal Responses Following Resistance Exercise in Men and Women

Background/Objectives: Resistance exercise under hypoxic conditions induces various metabolic and hormonal responses, yet the relationship between hypoxia severity and anabolic hormone responses remains unclear. This study aimed to assess the effects of a single bout of resistance exercise on metabolic and hormonal responses in normoxia and three levels of hypoxia in both men and women. Methods: The study involved 16 physically active individuals with at least two years of experience in recreational resistance training. The participants completed resistance exercise sessions in normoxia and normobaric hypoxia at simulated altitudes of 3000 m (H3000), 4000 m (H4000), and 5000 m (H5000). Blood levels of total testosterone (T), cortisol (C), growth hormone (GH), and metabolic variables were measured before and after exercise. Results: In women, severe hypoxia (H4000 and H5000) was found to significantly enhance post-exercise increases in T and GH compared to H3000 (p < 0.05), without affecting C levels. In men, hypoxia (regardless of intensity) did not significantly augment post-exercise changes in T and GH compared to normoxia. In H4000 conditions, an increase in C levels was observed (p < 0.05), leading to an unfavorable reduction in the T/C ratio. Additionally, a reduction in the total number of repetitions performed during the training session and a weakened metabolic response (lactate and creatine kinase) were observed in men at H5000. Conclusions: In women, severe hypoxia (H5000) was found to induce a pronounced hormonal response, particularly in GH levels. The use of severe hypoxia during resistance exercise appears unfavorable in men due to a reduced metabolic response, and diminished exercise capacity, coupled with a failure to induce more favorable changes in the secretion of anabolic hormones than in normoxic conditions.

Identification and Functional Characterization of MdNRT1.1 in Nitrogen Utilization and Abiotic Stress Tolerance in Malus domestica

Nitrate is one of the main sources of nitrogen for plant growth. Nitrate transporters (NRTs) participate in nitrate uptake and transport, and they are involved in abiotic stress tolerance. Previous studies have shown that NRT1.1 has a dual role in nitrate uptake and utilization; however, little is known about the function of MdNRT1.1 in regulating apple growth and nitrate uptake. In this study, apple MdNRT1.1, a homolog of Arabidopsis NRT1.1, was cloned and functionally identified. Nitrate treatment induced an increased transcript level of MdNRT1.1, and overexpression of MdNRT1.1 promoted root development and nitrogen utilization. Ectopic expression of MdNRT1.1 in Arabidopsis repressed tolerance to drought, salt, and ABA stresses. Overall, this study identified a nitrate transporter, MdNRT1.1, in apples and revealed how MdNRT1.1 regulates nitrate utilization and abiotic stress tolerance.

Acute and Rapid Response of Melissa officinalis and Mentha spicata to Saline Reclaimed Water in Terms of Water Relations, Hormones, Amino Acids and Plant Oxylipins

The use of reclaimed water is considered an efficient tool for agricultural irrigation; however, the high salinity associated to this water could compromise plant quality and yields. Balm and spearmint plants were submitted for 15 days to three irrigation treatments in a controlled chamber: control with EC: 1.2 dS m^-1 (control), reclaimed water from secondary effluent (EC: 1.6 dS m^-1) (S) and water from secondary effluent with brine (EC: 4.4 dS m^-1) (SB). The plant water status, stomatal and hormonal regulation, nutritional response, concentration of amino acids and plant oxidative stress-based markers, as well as growth were evaluated. Both species irrigated with saline reclaimed water reduced leaf water potential and gas exchange in comparison with control plants, following 2 days of exposure to irrigation treatments. Nevertheless, spearmint plants recovered photosynthetic activity from the seventh day onwards, maintaining growth. This was attributed to hormonal changes and a greater accumulation of some amino acids and some plant oxylipins (phytoprostanes) in comparison to balm plants, which contributed to the improvement in the organoleptic and health-promoting properties of spearmint. A longer irrigation period with saline reclaimed water would be necessary to assess whether the quality of both species, especially spearmint, could further improve without compromising their growth.