Mutational escape from CD8+ T cell immunity: HCV evolution, from chimpanzees to man

The mechanisms by which the hepatitis C virus (HCV) establishes persistence are not yet fully understood. Previous chimpanzee and now human studies suggest that mutations within MHC class I–restricted HCV epitopes might contribute to viral escape from cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) responses. However, there are several outstanding questions regarding the role of escape mutations in viral persistence and their fate in the absence of immune selection pressure.

Cell membrane modification for rapid display of proteins as a novel means of immunomodulation: FasL-decorated cells prevent islet graft rejection

Long-term display of exogenous proteins on the cell surface may have important research and therapeutic implications. We report a novel method for the cell-surface display of proteins that involves generation of a chimeric protein with core streptavidin, biotinylation of cells, and "decoration" with the protein. A chimeric protein with the extracellular portions of FasL (SA-FasL) was efficiently displayed on the cell surface within 2 hr without detectable cellular toxicity. Biotin and SA-FasL persisted on the cell surface for weeks in vitro and in vivo. Immunomodulation with SA-FasL-decorated splenocytes effectively blocked alloreactive responses in naive and presensitized rodents and prevented the rejection of allogeneic pancreatic islets. This approach may serve as an alternative to gene transfer-based expression with broad research and therapeutic applications.

Modulation of multiple experimental arthritis models by collagen-induced arthritis quantitative trait loci isolated in congenic rat lines: different effects of non-major histocompatibility complex quantitative trait loci in males and females

OBJECTIVE

Collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) is a model of inflammatory arthritis with many similarities to rheumatoid arthritis (RA). We previously mapped in F(2) offspring of CIA-susceptible DA and CIA-resistant F344 rats, 5 quantitative trait loci (QTLs) for which F344 alleles were associated with reduced CIA severity. In the present study, we sought to characterize the independent arthritis-modulating effects of these 5 QTLs.

METHODS

CIA-regulatory regions were transferred from the F344 genome to the DA background or vice versa by repeated backcrossing. The arthritis-modulating effects of the transferred alleles were determined by comparing the severity of experimentally induced arthritis in congenic rats with that in DA rats.

RESULTS

Congenic lines with either the F344 major histocompatibility complex (MHC) on the DA background or the DA MHC on the F344 background were resistant to CIA, confirming both MHC and non-MHC contributions to the genetic regulation of CIA. F344 alleles at the Cia3 and Cia5 regions of chromosomes 4 and 10 reduced CIA severity relative to that observed in DA rats. F344 Cia4 and Cia6 regions of chromosomes 7 and 8 failed to significantly alter CIA severity. Arthritis-modifying effects of Cia4 and Cia6 were, however, detected in pristane-induced and/or Freund's incomplete adjuvant oil-induced arthritis. The arthritis-modifying effects of the non-MHC CIA-regulatory loci differed in males and females.

CONCLUSION

These congenic lines confirmed the existence and location of genes that regulate the severity of experimental arthritis in rats. Mechanisms responsible for the sex-specificity of individual arthritis-regulatory loci may explain some of the sex differences observed in RA and other autoimmune diseases in humans.

Modulation of the anti-acetylcholine receptor response and experimental autoimmune myasthenia gravis by recombinant fragments of the acetylcholine receptor

Myasthenia gravis (MG) is a neuromuscular disorder of man caused by a humoral response to the acetylcholine receptor (AChR). Most of the antibodies in MG and in experimental autoimmune myasthenia gravis (EAMG) are directed to the extracellular portion of the AChR alpha subunit, and within it, primarily to the main immunogenic region (MIR). We have cloned and expressed recombinant fragments, corresponding to the entire extracellular domain of the AChR alpha subunit (H alpha1-210), and to portions of it that encompass either the MIR (H alpha1-121) or the ligand binding site of AChR (H alpha122-210), and studied their ability to interfere with the immunopathological anti-AChR response in vitro and in vivo. All fragments were expressed as fusion proteins with glutathione S-transferase. Fragments H alpha1-121 and H alpha1-210 protected AChR in TE671 cells against accelerated degradation induced by the anti-MIR monoclonal antibody (mAb)198 in a dose-dependent manner. Moreover, these fragments had a similar effect on the antigenic modulation of AChR by other anti-MIR mAb and by polyclonal rat anti-AChR antibodies. Fragments H alpha1-121 and H alpha1-210 were also able to modulate in vivo muscle AChR loss and development of clinical symptoms of EAMG, passively transferred to rats by mAb 198. Fragment H alpha122-210 did not have such a protective activity. Our results suggest that the appropriate recombinant fragments of the human AChR may be employed in the future for antigen-specific therapy of myasthenia.

Prevention of cytotoxic T cell escape using a heteroclitic subdominant viral T cell determinant

High affinity antigen-specific T cells play a critical role during protective immune responses. Epitope enhancement can elicit more potent T cell responses and can subsequently lead to a stronger memory pool; however, the molecular basis of such enhancement is unclear. We used the consensus peptide-binding motif for the Major Histocompatibility Complex molecule H-2K(b) to design a heteroclitic version of the mouse hepatitis virus-specific subdominant S598 determinant. We demonstrate that a single amino acid substitution at a secondary anchor residue (Q to Y at position 3) increased the stability of the engineered determinant in complex with H-2K(b). The structural basis for this enhanced stability was associated with local alterations in the pMHC conformation as a result of the Q to Y substitution. Recombinant viruses encoding this engineered determinant primed CTL responses that also reacted to the wildtype epitope with significantly higher functional avidity, and protected against selection of virus mutated at a second CTL determinant and consequent disease progression in persistently infected mice. Collectively, our findings provide a basis for the enhanced immunogenicity of an engineered determinant that will serve as a template for guiding the development of heteroclitic T cell determinants with applications in prevention of CTL escape in chronic viral infections as well as in tumor immunity.

Characterization of a series of isotype switch variants of a new CD20 monoclonal antibody

A series of heavy chain switch variants has been isolated from a new B cell-specific monoclonal antibody belonging in the CD20 cluster. The antibodies NKI-B20/1, NKI-B20/2b, and NKI-B20/2a (of isotype IgG1, IgG2b, and IgG2a, respectively) have been used to study the influence of isotype and of the target antigen on the capacity to mediate cytotoxicity with a number of effector mechanisms. Unlike many mouse MAbs, NKI-B20/2b and NKI-B20/2a were cytolytic with human complement on human target cells that did not express the complement regulatory factor HRF20. All 3 isotypes of NKI-B20 mediated antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC) with rIL-2-activated NK cells from mouse spleen. Here the antigen density seemed the most important factor in determining the level of cell kill. With mouse peritoneal macrophages as effector cells again all 3 isotypes of NKI-B20 mediated cytotoxicity. For the IgG1 and IgG2b variants of NKI-B20 this is at variance to what has been reported for MAbs of other specificities. Despite the high activity with murine effector cells none of the NKI-B20 MAbs mediated ADCC with human peripheral blood NK cells, with or without stimulation with rIL-2, due to the lack of interaction of the murine MAbs with the human Fc receptor. The CD20 antigen appears to be a good target antigen for various forms of cytotoxicity, to which its relatively high antigenic density, its resistance to antibody-induced modulation, and its unusual structure all contribute.

Immunomodulation of glioma cells after gene therapy: induction of major histocompatibility complex class I but not class II antigen in vitro

OBJECTIVE

Acquired immunity has been demonstrated in Fischer rats bearing syngeneic 9L tumors after herpes simplex virus (HSV) thymidine kinase (TK) gene transfection and ganciclovir treatment. The nature of this immunity in rats and its relevance to the HSV TK/ganciclovir protocol for human subjects remain to be determined. In this study, levels of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) Class I and II antigen expression were measured before and after HSV TK transfection, in an effort to document immunomodulatory changes caused by gene therapy.

METHODS

Tumor cells from the 9L gliosarcoma cell line, three primary human glioma cultures, and the human glioma cell line U87 MG were transduced with HSV TK vector-containing supernatant from fibroblast-producing cells (titer of 5 x 10(6) colony-forming units/ml) and selected in G418 medium for neomycin resistance. Clones were pooled or individually selected for cell-killing assays with ganciclovir, to confirm TK expression (10(3) cells/well in a 96-well dish). Northern analyses using MHC Class I and Class II complementary deoxyribonucleic acid probes were performed on blots containing total ribonucleic acid from wild-type tumor cells and HSV TK transfectants. A beta-actin complementary deoxyribonucleic acid probe served as an internal control. Cell surface expression was confirmed with flow cytometry. The induction of MHC Class I was tested for cycloheximide and genistein sensitivity.

RESULTS

All cell cultures exhibited increases in MHC Class I but not MHC Class II expression, as determined by Northern analysis densitometry and flow cytometry. Cycloheximide treatment did not diminish the up-regulation of MHC Class I after retroviral transfection, implicating a signal transduction pathway that does not require ongoing protein synthesis. Genistein pretreatment of cell cultures did diminish the up-regulation of MHC Class I, implicating a tyrosine kinase in the signaling cascade.

CONCLUSION

Induction of MHC Class I in rat and human glioma cells after HSV TK retroviral gene therapy is a primary effect that is dependent on tyrosine kinase activity. Specific immune responses generated after transfection may represent an important general side effect of gene therapy protocols. Elucidation of the mechanism of immunomodulation after gene therapy will likely yield safer and more effective clinical protocols.