Growth-profile configuration for specific deformations of tubular organs: A study of growth-induced thinning and dilation of the human cervix

Growth is a significant factor that results in deformations of tubular organs, and particular deformations associated with growth enable tubular organs to perform certain physiological functions. Configuring growth profiles that achieve particular deformation patterns is critical for analyzing potential pathological conditions and for developing corresponding clinical treatments for tubular organ dysfunctions. However, deformation-targeted growth is rarely studied. In this article, the human cervix during pregnancy is studied as an example to show how cervical thinning and dilation are generated by growth. An advanced hyperelasticity theory called morphoelasticity is employed to model the deformations, and a growth tensor is used to represent growth in three principle directions. The computational results demonstrate that both negative radial growth and positive circumferential growth facilitate thinning and dilation. Modeling such mixed growth represents an advancement beyond commonly used uniform growth inside tissues to study tubular deformations. The results reveal that complex growth may occur inside tissues to achieve certain tubular deformations. Integration of further biochemical and cellular activities that initiate and mediate such complex growth remains to be explored.

Nursing during the first two days of life is essential for the expression of proteins important for growth and remodeling of the neonatal porcine cervix

The neonatal porcine cervix is sensitive to hormones, including relaxin (RLX), from birth. Whether nursing is required to establish the cervical developmental program or to determine cervical developmental trajectory is unknown. The objective of study 1 was to determine effects of age and nursing on expression of molecular markers and mediators of porcine cervical growth and remodeling from birth to postnatal day (PND) 2 and to document effects of RLX treatment during this period on expression of targeted gene products in nursed vs. replacer-fed gilts. Study 2 was conducted to determine effects of age at first nursing and duration of nursing from birth on expression of targeted transcripts or proteins at PND 14. Nursing supported cervical estrogen receptor-α, vascular endothelial growth factor, matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)9, and antiapoptotic B-cell lymphoma-2 protein expression on PND 2. These proteins were undetectable in replacer-fed gilts. Returning replacer-fed gilts to nursing after PND 2 did not restore cervical expression of these proteins by PND 14. RLX increased (P < 0.05) cervical estrogen receptor-α, vascular endothelial growth factor, and B-cell lymphoma-2 protein in nursed gilts, MMP2 protein in nursed and replacer-fed gilts, and decreased (P < 0.05) pro-MMP9 protein in nursed gilts, and RXFP1 mRNA levels in nursed and replacer-fed gilts at PND 2. Replacer feeding for 2 wk from birth increased (P < 0.05) RXFP1 mRNA levels on PND 14. Results support the lactocrine hypothesis for maternal programming of neonatal tissues. Nursing from birth is required to establish the neonatal cervical developmental program and to maintain cervical developmental trajectory to PND 14.

[Study on the estrogenic effects of isoflavone]

OBJECTIVE

The study aimed to investigate the endocrine disruptive toxicity of isoflavone in vivo, through comparing with genistein, to study main active parts of isoflavone in estrogenic active, also.

METHODS

Uterotrophic assay was carried out. 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1.5 g/kg bw isoflavone, 0.05, 0.10, 0.25, 7.50 g/kg bw genistein, 3.0 microg/kg estradiol as positive control, water and oil as control were respectively administered orally to the animal for 3 consecutive day. In the end of the test, uterine wet and blotted weight, histopathology of ovary, uterus and vaginal were measured. Finally, all the effects caused by isoflavone and geinistein were compared.

RESULTS

Both isoflavone and genistein induce uterine weight increase significantly; histopathology of uterus and vagina showed that both isoflavone and genistein induce proliferation; there are dose-response relationship; in the related dose level, isoflavone and genistein caused similar effects.

CONCLUSION

In uterotrophic assay, genistein was the main active part of isoflavone; via oral administration to immature prepuberty rat, isoflavone had endocrine disruptive effects which had obviously dose-response relationship.

Estrogenic effects of genistein on reproductive tissues of ovariectomized gilts1

The soybean phytoestrogen genistein has a range of estrogenic actions demonstrated in various species; however, only limited research has been done to investigate its effects in swine. The objective of this study was to characterize the effects of a graded dose of genistein on estrogen-sensitive uterine and cervical tissues in ovariectomized gilts. Thirty-four postpubertal gilts were ovariectomized and assigned randomly to 1 of 6 treatment groups 15 d postovariectomy. Treatment groups received vehicle, estradiol benzoate (2 mg/d), or genistein (50, 100, 200, or 400 mg/d) via intramuscular injection at 12-h intervals for 10 d. Following the treatment period, gilts were euthanized, and uterine and cervical tissues were collected and processed for chemical or histological analysis. Uterine and cervical tissue mass, as indicated by wet, dry, and protein weights and total DNA content (expressed per 100 kg of BW), increased as the dosage of genistein increased (P < 0.001 for each regression). Uterine and cervical wet weights were increased by a dosage of 200 mg of genistein/d (P < 0.001 and P < 0.01, respectively) but not by 100 mg of genistein/d (P = 0.38 and P = 0.14, respectively) compared with those of control gilts. Height of epithelial cells lining the uterine glands and the lumen of uterus and cervix increased when gilts were treated with estradiol benzoate or 400 mg of genistein/d (P < 0.01). When the gilts were treated with estradiol benzoate or 400 mg of genistein/d, immunohistochemical staining demonstrated an increase in the percentage of cells that stained positive for progesterone receptor in the uterine glands and in the cells lining the vaginal cervix (P < 0.05). In gilts treated with 400 mg of genistein/d, the percentage of cells stained positive for proliferating cell nuclear antigen increased in the epithelium of the uterine glands, uterine lumen, and vaginal cervix (P < 0.05). Tissue growth was stimulated by genistein in a dosage-dependent manner, although no dosage of genistein induced a response as great as that of estradiol benzoate. Estrogen-sensitive tissues of the ovariectomized gilt, such as the cervix and uterus, are affected by injection of large dosages of the phytoestrogen genistein. The sensitivity of the uterus of the gilt to estrogenic substances makes it a potential model to examine the impact of environmental endocrine modulators on reproductive tissues.

Diethylstilbestrol versus estradiol as neonatal disruptors of the hamster (Mesocricetus auratus) cervix

The synthetic estrogen diethylstilbestrol (DES) is an established, estrogenic endocrine disruptor (ED). The Syrian golden hamster (Mesocricetus auratus) offers some unique advantages as an experimental system to investigate the perinatal ED action of DES and other estrogenic EDs. Previous analyses regarding the consequences of neonatal administration (100 microg) of DES versus estradiol-17beta (E2) showed that DES had a more potent disruptive effect on morphogenesis and gene expression in the uterus, oviduct, and ovary as well as in the testis and male accessory organs. The objectives of the present study were to describe the histopathological consequences of the two neonatal treatment regimens in the hamster cervix and to compare them with our previous observations in the hamster uterus. As previously found in the hamster uterus, DES was more potent than E2 as a neonatal disruptor of the hamster cervix in prepubertal animals and in ovarian-intact adult animals. However, the cervix-versus-uterus scenario diverged in animals that were ovariectomized prepubertally and then chronically stimulated with natural estrogen (E2). We confirmed previous observations that neonatal exposure to DES, but not to E2, permanently alters estrogen responsiveness in the adult hamster uterus, but neither neonatal treatment regimen affected estrogen responsiveness in the adult hamster cervix. These results suggest that an unidentified ovarian factor influences the extent of neonatal DES-induced disruption of the cervix, but not of the uterus, in hamsters.

Ultrasonographic evaluation of the pre-pubertal development of the reproductive tract in beef heifers

To study the development of the reproductive tract in heifers, the ovaries, uterus, cervix and vagina were examined by transrectal ultrasonography every 2 weeks, from 2 to 60 weeks after birth. First ovulation occurred at 63.7 +/- 1.1 weeks of age. Ovarian dimensions increased rapidly from 2 to 14 weeks of age, and increased again after 34 weeks of age (P<0.05). The size of the largest ovarian follicles increased from 8 to 14 weeks of age, from 38 to 42 weeks of age, and finally from 52 to 60 weeks of age (P<0.05). The number of follicles > or =3 mm in diameter tended to increase from 6 to 14 weeks of age (P<0.10) and increased significantly from 6 to 60 weeks of age (P<0.05). Mean numerical pixel values of the ovarian images decreased from 4 to 26 weeks of age, and then rose to 44 weeks of age (P<0.05). Diameter of the uterine body, cervix and vagina increased from 2 to 20-24 weeks of age, and again after 32 weeks of age (P<0.05). Mean numerical pixel values for the uterus and vagina decreased initially (uterus: 4-8 weeks and vagina: 6-22 weeks of age) and then increased (uterus: 14-42 weeks and vagina: 22-32 weeks of age; P<0.05). Pixel heterogeneity showed a consistent peak at 20-22 weeks of age for the uterus, cervix and vagina (P<0.05). In summary, in the heifer calf, the marked growth of the reproductive tract in the first few months of age, and prior to first ovulation, reflects phases of increased ovarian follicle (> or =3 mm in diameter) numbers and size. Ultrasonographic image analysis revealed patterns of numerical pixel values and heterogeneity that may be useful in determining important stages of growth and differentiation of the reproductive system.

[Biophysical parameters of early puberty in girls]

OBJECTIVE

The appearance of breast development in girls characterizes an early period of puberty. Ultrasonographic examinations of the uterus and ovaries make possible the estimation of first pubertal changes in sexual organs.

DESIGN

The aim of this work was to study the clinical and ultrasonographical features of early puberty in girls.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

33 healthy girls were observed quarterly in the course of prepuberty. Body mass, height, body mass index (BMI), quantity of adipose tissue were investigated. Stage of puberty was established according to Tanner. The uterus and ovaries were studied ultrasonographically, and the volume of the uterine body, length of the cervix and ovarian volume and size of ovarian follicles were scrutinised.

RESULTS

Statistical differences were observed in weight, height, quantity of adipose tissue and the volume of body and that of the uterus, in length of the cervix between prepuberty and early puberty periods. Luminastity of mucus in the cervical canal in half of girls in the breast stage M1 was obtained.

CONCLUSION

Ultrasonographic investigations of internal sexual organs with estimation of clinical sexual features are helpful in examination of early stage of puberty.

Relaxin increases secretion of tissue inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinase-1 and -2 during uterine and cervical growth and remodeling in the pig

Remodeling of reproductive organs during pregnancy requires degradation and resynthesis of structural barriers to cell invasion. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are enzymes that break down components of the extracellular matrix (ECM) and are essential for tissue remodeling processes. Tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs) are important regulators of MMP activity. In the pig, relaxin stimulates growth and remodeling of the uterus and cervix during pregnancy, effects that include the ability to alter elements of the ECM. Therefore, the objective of this study was to determine whether relaxin alters the production and/or activity of TIMP-1 and TIMP-2 in the porcine uterus or cervix. The growth-promoting effects of relaxin were elicited by administering relaxin to prepubertal gilts every 6 h for 54 h. Expression of TIMP-1 and TIMP-2 was characterized by immunoblotting. Total enzyme activity was measured using an MMP-specific fluorescent substrate assay. TIMP-1 and TIMP-2 proteins were present in the uterus and cervix of control and relaxin-treated pigs, and both proteins were increased by relaxin in the uterine flushes and tissues (P < 0.05). Inhibitor activity in uterine tissue extracts and uterine flushes from relaxin-treated animals was greater than that in controls; however, this activity was restricted to inhibition of MMP-2. In the uterine cervix, relaxin enhanced expression of TIMP-1 and TIMP-2 (P < 0.05), whereas expression of both TIMP proteins was similar in the vaginal cervix of control and relaxin-treated animals. Likewise, inhibitor activity against MMP-2 in the uterine cervix was enhanced in response to relaxin (P < 0.05). In contrast, inhibitor activity was attenuated in extracts from the vaginal cervix (P < 0.05). This study highlights the complex nature of MMP/TIMP regulation during reproductive tissue growth and suggests that TIMP-1 and TIMP-2 may be involved in other aspects of the growth process. These data support a role for relaxin in regulating the activity of TIMPs during growth and remodeling of reproductive connective tissue.

Relaxin increases secretion of matrix metalloproteinase-2 and matrix metalloproteinase-9 during uterine and cervical growth and remodeling in the pig

Matrix metalloproteinases are proteolytic enzymes that degrade the extracellular matrix and are essential for tissue remodeling. Uterine and cervical growth require remodeling of structural barriers to cell invasion and matrix metalloproteinase-2 and -9 degrade type IV collagen, the major component of basement membranes. Relaxin stimulates uterine and cervical growth and remodeling, which includes remodeling of support elements such as basement membranes. The objective of this study was to determine whether relaxin alters the production and/or activity of matrix metalloproteinase-2 and -9 in the uterus or cervix of the pig. The growth-promoting effects of relaxin were elicited by administering relaxin to prepubertal gilts every 6 h for 54 h. The expression of matrix metalloproteinase-2 and matrix metalloproteinase-9 was characterized by gel zymography, and proteins were quantified by immunoblotting. Total enzyme activity was measured using matrix metalloproteinase-specific fluorescent substrate assays. In both uterine and cervical tissues, immunoreactive matrix metalloproteinase-2 and matrix metalloproteinase-9 protein expression was similar in relaxin-treated and control animals. However, tissue-associated gelatinase activity was attenuated by relaxin (P < 0.05). In contrast, relaxin significantly increased the secretion of active matrix metalloproteinase-2 and -9 protein into uterine fluid (P < 0.05). Given the importance of matrix metalloproteinases in extracellular matrix degradation, the observation that relaxin promotes uterine secretion of matrix metalloproteinase-2 and -9 supports the concept that relaxin facilitates the growth and remodeling of reproductive tissues by increasing extracellular proteolysis in the pig reproductive tract.

Cervical ectopy in adolescent girls with and without human immunodeficiency virus infection

The objective of this study was to examine factors, including human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, associated with ectopy among adolescent girls aged 12-20 years who were participating in an ongoing study of HIV infection in adolescents. Samples for detection of bacterial vaginosis, Chlamydia trachomatis, and Neisseria gonorrhoeae and a high-resolution photograph of the cervix for ectopy measurement were collected. Ectopy data for 189 and 92 HIV-positive and -negative adolescents, respectively, were examined. Although univariate analysis found HIV infection and oral contraceptive use to be associated with the amount of ectopy, multivariate logistic regression analysis showed that only number of lifetime sex partners was a significant predictor, with more partners associated with less ectopy (odds ratio, 0.47; 95% confidence interval, 0.22-1.00; P=.05). In summary, adolescent girls with greater numbers of lifetime sex partners were more likely to have mature cervixes (less ectopy). HIV infection was not independently associated with ectopy.

Collagen studies in late pregnant relaxin null mice

The relaxin knockout (rlx -/-) mouse was used to assess the effect, during pregnancy, of relaxin with regard to water, collagen content, growth, and morphology of the nipple (N), vagina (V), uterus, cervix (C), pubic symphysis (PS), and mammary gland (MG). The results presented here indicate that during pregnancy, relaxin increases the growth of the N, C, V, and PS. Large increases in water content in the PS (20%) occurred in pregnant (Day 18.5) wild-type (rlx +/+) mice but not in rlx -/- animals. This indicates that in the PS, relaxin might increase the concentration of a water-retaining extracellular matrix component (hyaluronate). In the pregnant rlx +/+ mouse, collagen content decreased significantly in the N and V but not in other tissues. There were no significant changes in the rlx -/- mouse. This contrasts with findings in the rat, in which relaxin has been found to cause decreases in collagen concentrations in the V, C, and PS. Histological analysis showed that the collagen stain was more condensed in the tissues (V, C, PS, N, and MG) of rlx -/- mice than in those of rlx +/+ mice. This phenomenon indicates that the failure of collagen degradation and lack of growth in the N underlie the inability of the rlx -/- mice to feed their young, as reported previously. Vaginal and cervical luminal epithelia, which proliferated markedly in the rlx +/+ pregnant mice, remained relatively atrophic in the rlx -/- mice. As proliferation and differentiation of uterine and vaginal epithelia are thought to be induced by a paracrine stromal factor that acts upon estrogen stimulation, our results indicate that relaxin may be this paracrine factor.

Inhibition of nitric oxide synthase activity diminishes the acute effects of relaxin on growth, but not softening, of the cervix in the rat

Relaxin promotes growth and softening of the cervix during pregnancy in the rat. This study examined the hypothesis that nitric oxide (NO) mediates the effects of relaxin on the rat cervix. To test that hypothesis, N omega-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME) was used to inhibit NO synthase, the enzyme that converts arginine to NO and L-citrulline. Nonpregnant rats were ovariectomized when they were 78 days old (day 1 of treatment). At ovariectomy each animal was fitted with silicon tubing implants containing progesterone (P) and estrogen (E) in doses that provide blood levels similar to those during late pregnancy. Rats were assigned to three treatment groups. The control group OPE (n = 6 rats) received 0.5 ml L-NAME vehicle (PBS) sc at 6-h intervals from 0600 h on day 7 through 1200 h on day 8 and 0.5 ml relaxin vehicle (PBS) sc at 0600 and 1200 h on day 8. Group OPER (n = 6 rats) was treated in the same way as group OPE, except that 20 microg porcine relaxin were administered. Group OPERI (n = 7 rats) was treated in the same way as group OPER, except that L-NAME was administered at a dose of 100 mg/kg x 6 h. Between 1400-1500 h on day 8, the cervices were removed and weighed. Cervical wet weight and extensibility were markedly greater (P < 0.01) in relaxin-treated group OPER rats than in group OPE controls. Treatment with L-NAME diminished relaxin's effects on cervical wet weight, but not cervical extensibility. In conclusion, this study provides evidence that NO contributes to the acute effects of relaxin on the growth, but not the softening, of the rat cervix.

Evidence that relaxin's effects on growth and softening of the cervix are not mediated through prostaglandins in the rat

Relaxin plays a major role in promoting the growth and softening of the cervix that occurs during the second half of pregnancy in the rat. There is limited evidence that prostaglandins play a role in cervical softening in mammalian species. Accordingly, this study was conducted to determine if prostaglandins mediate relaxin's effects on the rat cervix. To attain that objective, indomethacin was used to inhibit cyclooxygenase, the key enzyme in the conversion of arachidonic acid to prostaglandins. Twenty-six nonpregnant female rats were ovariectomized when they were 78 days old (day 1 of treatment). At ovariectomy (O), each rat was fitted with silicon tubing implants containing progesterone (P) and estrogen (E) in doses that provided blood levels similar to those during late pregnancy in rats. Rats were randomly assigned to three treatment groups. Group OPE controls (n = 8 rats) received 2 ml indomethacin vehicle (0.5% methyl cellulose, 0.025 Tween 80 in water) via gavage at 0900 h on days 8 and 9 and 0.5 ml relaxin vehicle (0.9% NaCl) s.c. at 6-h intervals from 1200 h on day 8 through 0600 h on day 10. Group OPER (n = 9 rats) was treated as group OPE except that 20 microg highly purified porcine relaxin was administered. Group OPERI (n = 9 rats) was treated as group OPER except that indomethacin was administered at a dose (20 mg/kg BW) that reduced cervical PGE2 levels by more than 90%. Between 0800 h and 1000 h on day 10, the cervices were removed, trimmed of fat, weighed, and placed in ice-cold Krebs-Ringer bicarbonate buffer, pH 7.5. Cervical extensibility (degree of softening) was determined within 4 h of tissue collection. Both the mean cervical wet weight and the mean cervical extensibility in the relaxin-treated group OPER rats were markedly greater (P < 0.01) than in the group OPE controls. Treatment with indomethacin did not diminish relaxin's effects on either cervical wet weight or cervical extensibility. In conclusion, this study provides evidence that relaxin's effects on cervical growth and softening in the rat are not mediated through prostaglandins.

Relaxin and estrogen synergistically accelerate growth and development in the uterine cervix of prepubertal pigs

This study was designed to determine the development and growth-promoting effects of relaxin with or without estrogen on the uterine cervix of prepubertal gilts. Twenty littermate gilts of similar body weight (33 +/- 3 kg; mean +/- SE) at 80 days of age were randomly assigned to four treatments: Vehicle (CONTROL, 1 ml PBS and 1 ml vegetable oil, n = 5); Relaxin (Relaxin, in PBS, 1 ml, 167 micrograms ml-1, n = 5); Estradiol Benzoate (EB, in vegetable oil, 1 ml, 2 mg ml-1, n = 5); and Relaxin plus EB (Relaxin + EB, at the same doses, n = 5), total six intramuscular injections for all treatments. Twenty four hours after the last injection, hysterectomy was performed, and the uterine tissues were immediately frozen at -80 degrees C. Samples were taken from the middle portions of the cervix and the uterine horns and dried to a constant weight to determine the dry weight and water concentration. Homogenates of uterine horns and cervices were analyzed for concentrations and contents of protein, hydroxyproline (collagen index) and DNA. Relaxin alone had no significant effect on any parameters (i.e., wet weight, Relaxin vs.

CONTROL

36 +/- 5 vs. 28 +/- 3 g uterus-1, dry weight 5.6 +/- 0.6 vs. 4.4 +/- 0.4 g uterus-1). EB alone increased significantly (P < 0.05) wet weight of the uterus (EB vs.

CONTROL

85 +/- 23 vs. 28 +/- 3 g uterus-1), dry weight (EB vs.

CONTROL

14.5 +/- 3 vs. 4.4 +/- 0.4 g uterus-1), and hydroxyproline content (EB vs.

CONTROL

47.2 +/- 13 vs. 12.6 +/- 4 mg cervix-1). In the presence of EB, relaxin treatment increased all measurements compared with CONTROL (i.e., wet weight, Relaxin + EB vs. EB: 136 +/- 34 vs. 28 +/- 3 g uterus-1). Compared with EB, Relaxin + EB significantly (P < 0.05) increased the uterine wet weight (Relaxin + EB vs. EB: 136 +/- 34 vs. 85 +/- 23 g uterus-1), the hydroxyproline content (Relaxin + EB vs. EB: 91 +/- 29 vs. 47 +/- 13 mg cervix-1), and DNA content (Relaxin + EB vs. EB: 8.1 +/- 2 vs. 5.4 +/- 1 mg cervix-1). These results indicate that the growth-promoting effects of relaxin on the uterus and cervix may be, at least partly, estrogen-dependent and that the growth and development of the uterus and cervix can be accelerated by a combination of relaxin and estrogen treatment.

Growth of the uterus

BACKGROUND

The pattern of growth of the uterus was examined by ultrasound examinations of 358 girls who attended a paediatric endocrine outpatient department but were shown not to have any endocrine defect.

METHOD

The uterus was measured in length and width at the cervix and at the fundus (cm). Endometrial thickness was measured (mm). Scans were divided by Tanner breast stage and the dimensions compared by one way analysis of variance (ANOVA, with the Student Newman Keuls post hoc test).

RESULTS

There was an increase in uterine length, diameter of the fundus, and endometrial thickness at each breast stage from 1 to 5 (ANOVA, p < 0.05), and in the diameter of the cervix with each breast stage from 1 to 4 (ANOVA, p < 0.05). The ratio of the fundus to the cervix increased from 0.95 to 1.29 between breast stages 1 and 4.

CONCLUSION

The onset of puberty is marked by an increase in the dimensions of the uterus and in endometrial thickness, but also by a change in the shape of the uterus from a tubular to a pear shaped organ.

Ontogeny of neurotransmitter systems in the paracervical ganglion and uterine cervix of the rat

BACKGROUND

The paracervical ganglia (PG) are components of the pelvic plexus that provides sensory and motor innervation to the reproductive system of the female rat. Several neurotransmitters including norepinephrine (NE), acetylcholine (ACh), neuropeptide Y (NPY), and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) are present in neurons of the adult PG and in axons innervating the adult uterus and uterine cervix. The current study was undertaken to describe the onset of immunoreactivity of these neurotransmitters and neuropeptides during development.

METHODS

Female rats, ages E18 to P36, were prepared for immunohistochemistry for TH (tyrosine hydroxylase, a marker of noradrenergic neurons), NPY, or VIP as well as the histochemical demonstration of acetylcholinesterase (AChE).

RESULTS

All four markers were detected in neurons of the PG at E18. Changes in the appearance of these markers from E18 to P36 reflected previously described growth changes in the PG. Axons containing AChE, TH, NPY, or VIP were first detected within the cervix at E20. Immunopositive axons first appeared as thick, unbranched structures at the outermost portion of the cervical myometrium. Over time, these axon bundles ramified to form discrete varicose axons. The ingrowth was similar for axons containing each of the four markers.

CONCLUSIONS

The relative density of each neuronal type in the PG was reflected in the density of axons containing the same marker in the cervix. Changes in neurotransmitter/neuropeptide staining of PG neurons or axons in the cervix were not observed as the animals approached puberty.

Maturational changes in sympathetic and sensory innervation of the rat uterus: effects of neonatal capsaicin treatment

The plasticity of the sympathetic and sensory innervation of the rat uterus was examined, before and after puberty, in controls and in animals where primary sensory nerves had been destroyed by neonatal capsaicin treatment. Immunohistochemical and histochemical methods were used in association with nerve density measurements and biochemical assays. The main findings were as follows: (1) Puberty was associated with a marked increase in the weight of the uterine horn, uterine cervix and parametrial tissue. This was unaffected by capsaicin treatment. (2) The sympathetic innervation of the uterine horn and parametrial tissue was reduced following puberty as revealed by a decrease in the density of noradrenaline-containing nerves and a marked decrease in the tissue concentration of noradrenaline. Sympathetic nerves supplying the uterine cervix and the blood vessels of the uterus appeared to be unaffected by puberty. (3) In contrast, the sensory supply of the uterus by substance P and calcitonin gene-related peptide-containing nerves increased in parallel with uterine growth during puberty resulting in no change in nerve density and only a slight reduction in peptide concentration. (4) Neonatal capsaicin treatment caused a long-lasting depletion of substance P- and calcitonin gene-related peptide-containing nerves. In the uterine horn and parametrial tissue, capsaicin-resistant calcitonin gene-related peptide, but not substance P, still increased with tissue weight during puberty, indeed, in the uterine horn, the relative increase was greater than in controls. (5) Sensory denervation resulted in an increase in the non-vascular sympathetic supply of the uterus, although there was a regional variation in the time course of the response. Perivascular sympathetic nerves were unaffected by capsaicin treatment. The pattern of change in non-vascular noradrenaline-containing nerves associated with puberty was similar in nature to controls. Thus, there is considerable plasticity in the innervation of the uterus both during puberty and following sensory denervation. A complex pattern of change occurs with differential responses in vascular and nonvascular nerves and in different regions of the uterus. Such differences may be due in part to the different origins of individual nerve populations and/or to their relative sensitivities to sex hormones.

Postnatal development of the cervical epithelium in the Mongolian gerbil

This study analyzes the postnatal development of the Mongolian gerbil's cervical epithelium, in relation to its future functions. In the newborn gerbil the outline of the cervical canal is smooth, showing hardly any signs of folding. The epithelium consists of 1 to 3 layers. The cervical cells have rounded apices of regular outline and contain a large amount of glycogen. The first secretory products of specific mucus type appear about day 23 postnatally (p.n.). Initially two types of vesicles can be identified, as compared with only one type in sexually mature animals. The process of mucification begins in the vagina and the external os of the cervix and spreads towards the cervical horns. The cervical canal, besides growing longer, becomes increasingly folded during development. At about day 50 p.n., with the onset of sexual maturity, an upper endocervix and a lower ectocervix can be distinguished within the cervical canal. In the fully mature animal, the endocervix consists of 4 to 5 layers, in which apical cells mucify and exfoliate. In the ectocervix, the epithelium can be divided into 4 to 5 basal layers and 5 to 7 upper layers which mucify, keratinize, and exfoliate, according to the cyclic phases of the vagina. Diapedesis of leucocytes through the epithelium starts around day 45 p.n.

Progesterone regulates epidermal growth factor receptor on mucous secreting cells in the rabbit endocervix

During postnatal differentiation, epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptor is expressed by all major cell types of the cervix. Computer-assisted image analysis confirmed the highest concentration of EGF receptor is in the epithelial cells. Flow cytometric analysis of subpopulations of epithelial cells from estrous rabbits showed the mucous secreting cells had the highest concentration of EGF receptor, i.e. 1-1.5 x 10(5) receptors per cell. Because the mucous secreting cells are targets for steroid hormones it seemed likely that steroids regulate EGF receptor expression. To investigate this possibility, hormone-dependent changes in EGF receptor expression were quantified by flow cytometry. Ovariectomy and the treatment of ovariectomized animals with estradiol altered forward angle light scatter and side scatter signals which correlated with cell size and secretory granule content, respectively. However, the number of epithelial cells and the number of EGF receptors per cell were unaffected. Progesterone treatment of ovariectomized animals dramatically reduced the number of EGF receptors on the mucous secreting cells, accounting for a 43% reduction in the total EGF receptor content of the epithelium. The treatment of neonates with diethylstilbestrol did not change the number of EGF receptors in endocervical epithelial cells when examined in adulthood. However, the number of mucous secreting cells was decreased, thereby reducing the EGF receptor content of the epithelium 19-36% compared to estrous and estradiol-treated animals. These results provide the first evidence that progesterone regulates EGF receptor on mucous secreting cells in the endocervix and that diethylstilbestrol treatment alters the EGF receptor content of the epithelium by altering its cellular composition.

Steroid receptors in the developing and the adult rabbit endocervix and in endocervical epithelial cells isolated by flow cytometry

Immunocytochemistry with monoclonal antibodies H222 and JZB39 was used to study nuclear estrogen (ER) and progesterone (PgR) receptors, respectively, in the cervix during differentiation and in the adult rabbit. The undifferentiated state of the cervix of 2-week-old rabbits correlates with a paucity of immunoreactive nuclear ER, while the epithelium of most of these animals showed moderate immunostaining for the nuclear PgR. The cervical epithelium, stroma and muscle cells of 1-month-old rabbits, showed weak immunostaining for the ER, while staining for PgR remained comparable to that of 2-week-old rabbits. For 2-4-month old rabbits the epithelium was characterized by moderate immunostaining for the nuclear ER and strong immunostaining for the PgR. Strong, heterogeneous immunostaining for nuclear ER and PgR receptors in endocervical epithelial cells from 6-month-old (adult), estrous rabbits suggested there are subpopulations of cells that express differential sensitivity to steroid hormones. In order to characterize such subpopulations, live endocervical epithelial cells were sorted with a flow cytometer on the basis of forward angle light scatter (FSC) and side scatter (SSC) signals which correlated with cell size and secretory granule content, respectively. Secretory cells, as verified by ultrastructural analysis and histochemical staining, expressed the highest FSC and SSC signals and were designated fraction "a". Changes in the hormonal status of the animals altered the intrinsic light scatter properties of fraction "a" cells as follows: maximum FSC and SSC signals were reported for cells from estrous animals; ovariectomy or progesterone-dominance decreased cell size (FCS) and secretory granule content (SSC), while treatment of ovariectomized rabbits with estradiol increased both parameters. When fraction "a" cells from estrous rabbits were incubated with the monoclonal antibodies, two distinct subpopulations of secretory cells were identified by intensity and pattern of nuclear staining for the ER and PgR. Changes in the hormonal status of the animals produced changes in the intensity of nuclear immunostaining, however both cell types remained distinguishable on the basis of immunostain pattern reflecting either permanent or transitory differences in them, and differential hormone sensitivity. The presence of nuclear ER and PgR proteins in these cells confirms their function is bireceptor-mediated.

Distribution and cyclic change of aromatase cytochrome P-450 activity in human uteri

Activities of aromatase cytochrome P-450 in the columnar epithelial region (CE), squamous epithelial region (SE) and connective tissue (CT) of uterine cervix, and endometrium (EM) during the menstrual cycle were determined using [4-14C] and [1 beta-3H]androstenedione. Aromatase activities in the proliferative phase (n = 8) were 15.0 +/- 7.9, 10.9 +/- 10.3, 9.4 +/- 10.6 and 8.0 +/- 7.3 (mean +/- SD) fmol/h/mg protein in CE, SE, CT and EM, respectively, and aromatase activities in the secretory phase (n = 6) were 31.5 +/- 7.6, 19.1 +/- 7.1, 5.6 +/- 4.6 and 6.3 +/- 1.5 fmol/h/mg protein, respectively. The results show that the aromatase activities in these regions in the proliferative phase were not significantly different from each other. On the other hand, the aromatase activity in the secretory phase was significantly higher in CE than in any other regions (P less than 0.05), and significantly higher in SE than in CT or EM (P less than 0.05). There was no significant difference in aromatase activity between CT and EM. By comparison of aromatase activity between these two phases, the activity in CE was significantly higher in the secretory phase than in the proliferative phase (P less than 0.05), but no significant difference was observed in other regions.

Strain differences in the ontogeny of estrogen receptors in murine uterine epithelium

The expression of estrogen receptor (ER) in the reproductive tracts of neonatal mice was examined using immunocytochemical and autoradiographic methods. Two strains of mice used in previous studies that reported contradictory results showed different rates of uterine epithelial development. In the inbred strain, BALB/c, the epithelium was devoid of receptor from birth through 5 days of age, while uterine epithelial cells of the outbred strain, CD-1, expressed ER as early as 3 days of age. Oviductal epithelium and cervical epithelium expressed ER on the day of birth in CD-1 mice. Glandular ontogeny in the uteri of CD-1 animals was also advanced by 3 days compared to that of BALB/c mice. These observations reconcile the conflicting reports of ER ontogeny in the neonatal mouse. More importantly, these results confirm our earlier observations, indicating that the cells lining uteri of 2- and 4-day-old BALB/c mice lack ER at a time when estrogen induces their proliferation.

Developmental pattern of estrogen receptor expression in female mouse genital tracts

The distribution of the estrogen receptor (ER) was investigated in neonatal female genital tracts (uterus, oviduct, cervix, and vagina) from days 1-22 after birth, using immunohistochemistry employing an anti-ER monoclonal antibody. In uteri, the ER in epithelial cells began to be observed by day 4. The number of positive epithelial cells and the staining intensity gradually increased until day 22 of age. On the other hand, uterine stroma cells gave a strong ER immunostaining even on day 1. The staining intensity reached a maximum by days 4-7 and then slightly decreased with age. In the oviduct, cervix, and vagina, epithelial cells showed positive ER immunostaining on day 1, and the intensity increased gradually until day 22. ER immunostaining in stroma cells was almost constant during the development period. The ER in both epithelial and stroma cells from these younger animals showed similar biochemical properties, i.e. an increased affinity for nuclei and resistance to extraction with PBS. Thus, during neonatal development of the female reproductive tract, ER is present not only in stroma cells but also in epithelial cells. This ER protein exhibits properties and characteristics similar to those of adult mice. The presence of ER suggests that some of the estrogen actions of cell proliferation, differentiation, and tissue abnormalities resulting from prenatal and postnatal estrogen administration may be mediated by receptor interactions.

[Uterine growth in the endometrium active phase]

Paediatric and adolescent gynaecology still lacks normal values for the size of the uterus from the post partum period up to early puberty. The relevant literature fails to provide reliable information concerning this subject. Anatomical studies by ultrasound yielded controversial results. We have performed a morphometric study on a random sample of corpses and found a longitudinal growth of the uterus of about 10 mm during the period of dormant endometrium i.e. between the first and eleventh year of life. During the 12th to the 14th year we found an accelerated growth, amounting to altogether 20-30 mm. A shift in the cervix-corpus proportions as reported previously was not observed. However, the longitudinal growth, as well as the distance between the portio and fundus, which is clinically more important, seemed to correlate with the girl's body weight and height. The broadwise growth correlated with the girl's age. These observations allow us to speculate on the organ's options for further differentiation, especially during the post partum period and to evaluate the effect of early puberty on the increment of uterine size.

Estrogen regulation of the central enzymes involved in O- and N-linked glycoprotein assembly in the developing and the adult rabbit endocervix

During cervical differentiation in 1- to 6-month-old rabbits, a marked increase was observed in the titer of serum estradiol, the number of secretory cells in the endocervix, and the granule content of these cells. Because these secretory granules are rich in carbohydrates it seemed likely that hormones regulate glycoconjugate biosynthesis in the endocervix. To investigate this possibility, the synthesis of O- and N-linked glycoproteins was studied in cell-free preparations from endocervical epithelium. The activity of N-acetylgalactosaminyl (GalNAc) transferase, the first enzyme in the pathway for O-linked oligosaccharide chain biosynthesis, measured in microsomes prepared from the developing cervix, was increased 8-fold. Oligosaccharyltransferase, the enzyme that catalyzes the first step in the attachment of N-linked oligosaccharide chains to proteins, was measured in microsomes prepared under the same conditions as those used for GalNAc transferase. The results of two independent assay methods revealed an estrogen-dependent 10- to 15-fold increase in oligosaccharyltransferase during cervical differentiation. Consistent with these developmental effects, ovariectomy of adult rabbits resulted in reduced (P less than 0.01) titers of serum estradiol and a 2-fold reduction in the specific activity of GalNAc transferase. When animals were treated with exogenous estradiol, GalNAc transferase activity returned to estrous control levels. The antagonistic action of progesterone on GalNAc transferase activity was verified using endocervical membranes from pseudopregnant animals. Similarly, oligosaccharyltransferase activity was reduced 2- to 3-fold when estrous animals were ovariectomized or made pseudopregnant. The treatment of ovariectomized animals with estradiol resulted in the restoration of oligosaccharyltransferase to estrous control values. Collectively, these results provide the first definitive evidence that hormones can regulate the activity of the enzymes involved in the attachment of O- and N-linked oligosaccharide chains to proteins in the endocervix.

[Biosynthesis of prostaglandin in human cervical tissue]

It is known that prostaglandin (PG)E2 and PGI2 can contribute to the ripening of the uterine cervix. To study the PG biosynthesis in cervical tissue, 14C-arachidonic acid was used to incubate the preparation of human cervical tissue obtained from pregnant women at delivery and non pregnant women at hysterectomy. Labeled PGE2 and 6-keto-PGF1 alpha (6PG), a stable metabolite of PGI2 were isolated on TLC, and the enzymatic activity was calculated from the formation of PGE2 and 6PG from arachidonic acid. The capacity to metabolize arachidonic acid to PGE2 and 6PG in cervical tissue obtained from pregnant women was 6 times higher than that from non pregnant women. Low enzymatic activity in the formation of PGE2 and 6PG were observed in cervical tissues from the patients with placental sulfatase deficiency and preterm delivery which were known to have a low estrogen environment. On the other hand, DHA-S administration to patients increased the formation of both PGE2 and 6PG. These results demonstrate that human cervical tissue possesses the ability to synthesize PGE2 and PGI2, and enzymatic activity increased during pregnancy, and was further enhanced by the administration of DHA-S. The results suggest that the steroids in the fetoplacental unit may be involved in the mechanism controlling the formation of PGs in the cervical tissue which lead the cervix to ripen at term.

Growth-promoting effects of relaxin and related compositional changes in the uterus, cervix, and vagina of the rat

Although the precise role of relaxin has yet to be elucidated, it has been implicated in the regulation of physiological and biochemical processes in the reproductive tract during pregnancy and parturition. In this study, the growth-promoting effects of relaxin and related compositional changes in the uterus, cervix, and vagina of immature ovariectomized estrogen-primed rats were examined. Relaxin increased the wet weight of the uterus, cervix, and vagina in a significant and linear manner over the log of the dose range (1-30 micrograms; 6 h). The increase in uterine weight was due to increases in both dry weight and water content at all doses. A dose of 1 microgram relaxin induced maximal increases in dry weights in the cervix and vagina over control values; higher doses increased wet weight, but these changes were due solely to increases in water content. Thirty micrograms of relaxin were found to increase total soluble protein and glycogen content of the vagina above control values after 6 h. Relaxin did not alter the total collagen levels of the uterus or cervix, and collagen concentrations were significantly reduced in these organs 6 and 24 h after treatment. Total glycosaminoglycan levels were elevated by relaxin in the uterus (6 h) and cervix (24 h). Total vaginal collagen was increased 24 h after relaxin injection, but the collagen concentration was decreased over the time interval studied, and glycosaminoglycan levels in the vagina were unaltered. In summary, relaxin stimulates growth of the uterus, cervix, and vagina by increasing water content and tissue mass. The increases in distensibility that relaxin induces in these organs appear to be related to changes in the fluid matrix and proteoglycan metabolism rather than alterations in collagen concentration, at least 6-24 h after a single injection. These results support the hypothesis that relaxin plays a significant role in the maintenance of pregnancy through its contribution to fetal accommodation and in the facilitation of parturition through expansion of the entire birth canal.

Development of the reproductive organs

Understanding of the development of the reproductive organs is essential to the evaluation of abnormalities in sexual differentiation. Recent advances resulting from application of genetic, biochemical, and ultrastructural techniques have helped to clarify the mechanisms regulating gonadal and reproductive tract development. The present review considers the major processes of sexual differentiation, development of the female reproductive system and development of the male reproductive system with emphasis on current understanding of basic regulatory mechanisms involved in normal and abnormal development of the reproductive organs.

[Postnatal development of granule-containing cells in the paracervical ganglion (Frankenhäuser) of the mouse: an electron microscopic study]

Granule-containing cells of the paracervical ganglion were studied by electron microscopy in mice at birth to 60 days of age. In the paracervical ganglion of newborn mice, among nerve cells, there are clusters of small spherical cells, which often contain small granular vesicles, 80 to 150 nm in diameter, in the peripheral zone of the cytoplasm. The cells with few granular vesicles are also observed. After 5 days of age the granule-containing cells are arranged in small groups, scattering in the ganglion. According to the size and distribution of the granular vesicles, granule-containing cells are classified into 3 types (types A, B, and C). The granule-containing cells similar to those in newborn mice are type A. In type B cells, small granular vesicles are distributed throughout the cytoplasm. Type C cells contain large granular vesicles, 150 to 400 nm in diameter, and small granular vesicles which are distributed throughout the cytoplasm. In newborn mice, all of the granule-containing cells are type A. Type A cells decrease with age and they are the smallest in frequency after 20 days of age. Type B cells appear at 5 days of age, increase rapidly, and become 46%, most frequent among 3 types, at 20 days of age, then decrease and become rare like type A cells at 60 days of age. Type C cells also appear at 5 days of age and they are the smallest in frequency at 5 and 10 days. Type C cells increase with age and become about 80% at 60 days. They are the most frequent cells after 35 days of age.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Developmental mechanism of estrogen-induced irreversible changes in the mouse cervicovaginal epithelium

Neonatal female mice of the NMRI strain, given injections of 17 beta-estradiol or DES, were studied with respect to immediate effects and those that appeared in the animal's adult stage. With the estrogen dose used (5 micrograms daily), proliferation of the pseudostratified columnar epithelium in the upper part of the müllerian vagina was inhibited. This resulted in the occurrence of regions containing an RCE in the uterine cervix and upper vagina of adult animals instead of the normal squamous epithelium. Later, the RCE developed into adenosis; subsequently, suspected malignant changes were seen. Besides the morphologic differences compared with control animals, neonatal estrogen treatment resulted in changes in the amount of CVA. Compared with controls, the amount of CVA was high in the superficial mucified vaginal cells of neonatally DES-treated mice, subsequently castrated and given estrogen as adults. The RCE had a low level of CVA. An interaction of estradiol and prolactin was important for the CVA level. Neonatal estrogen treatment may result in persistent changes in the regulation of plasma prolactin. A comparison is made between the estrogen-induced changes in mice and the DES effects in the female offspring of women exposed to DES during pregnancy. The importance of the mouse model for the study of the relevance of estrogen-induced, irreversible changes and other factors in the development of human clear cell adenocarcinomas in the vagina and cervix is stressed.

[Hormone dependent, functional gynecologic morphology in infancy and adolescence presented on the example of the cervix uteri]

Signs of different activities in the dynamic morphology of the epithelium and mucus of the cervix uteri are demonstrated in the female fetus, newborn, child and adolescent. Besides the morphological description of the ectropium, transitional zone, s.c. "reserve-cells", squamous cell nodes and production and secretion of mucus other investigations were done by allometry, caryometry and histochemistry. The examinations allow insight into the hormonal activities specially of the estrogenes in different periods of female life.

Dynamic anatomy of the cervical epithelium

The surface epithelium of the cervix undergoes change at many periods during life. The changes are principally due to the occurrence of metaplastic squamous epithelium within the transformation zone. This process seems to hold the key to an understanding of the origins of neoplastic development in the cervix. Cervical mucus secretion also seems to be dramatically influenced by this process.

The Cervical Epithelium From Fetal Age to Adolescence

Uteri obtained at the postmortem examination of 164 girls ranging in age from premature and immature infants to 11 years were studied for evidence regarding the developmental changes that take place in the cervix during this period of life and in particular the mechanisms involved in the production and regression of congenital ectropion. Tt is concluded that congenital ectropion is a normal feature of development of the cervix.Its occurrence and its persistence or disappearance appear to depend on variable growth of cervical tissues as they react to hormonal stimulation, hormonal deprivation, and systemic growth. The mechanisms are described in detail.