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Abstract
Gaze is an important component of social interaction. The function, evolution and neurobiology of gaze processing are therefore of interest to a number of researchers. This review discusses the evolutionary role of social gaze in vertebrates (focusing on primates), and a hypothesis that this role has changed substantially for primates compared to other animals. This change may have been driven by morphological changes to the face and eyes of primates, limitations in the facial anatomy of other vertebrates, changes in the ecology of the environment in which primates live, and a necessity to communicate information about the environment, emotional and mental states. The eyes represent different levels of signal value depending on the status, disposition and emotional state of the sender and receiver of such signals. There are regions in the monkey and human brain which contain neurons that respond selectively to faces, bodies and eye gaze. The ability to follow another individual's gaze direction is affected in individuals with autism and other psychopathological disorders, and after particular localized brain lesions. The hypothesis that gaze following is "hard-wired" in the brain, and may be localized within a circuit linking the superior temporal sulcus, amygdala and orbitofrontal cortex is discussed.
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Review |
25 |
1117 |
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Farroni T, Csibra G, Simion F, Johnson MH. Eye contact detection in humans from birth. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2002; 99:9602-5. [PMID: 12082186 PMCID: PMC123187 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.152159999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 821] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Making eye contact is the most powerful mode of establishing a communicative link between humans. During their first year of life, infants learn rapidly that the looking behaviors of others conveys significant information. Two experiments were carried out to demonstrate special sensitivity to direct eye contact from birth. The first experiment tested the ability of 2- to 5-day-old newborns to discriminate between direct and averted gaze. In the second experiment, we measured 4-month-old infants' brain electric activity to assess neural processing of faces when accompanied by direct (as opposed to averted) eye gaze. The results show that, from birth, human infants prefer to look at faces that engage them in mutual gaze and that, from an early age, healthy babies show enhanced neural processing of direct gaze. The exceptionally early sensitivity to mutual gaze demonstrated in these studies is arguably the major foundation for the later development of social skills.
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23 |
821 |
3
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Adolphs R, Gosselin F, Buchanan TW, Tranel D, Schyns P, Damasio AR. A mechanism for impaired fear recognition after amygdala damage. Nature 2005; 433:68-72. [PMID: 15635411 DOI: 10.1038/nature03086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 807] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2004] [Accepted: 10/07/2004] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Ten years ago, we reported that SM, a patient with rare bilateral amygdala damage, showed an intriguing impairment in her ability to recognize fear from facial expressions. Since then, the importance of the amygdala in processing information about facial emotions has been borne out by a number of lesion and functional imaging studies. Yet the mechanism by which amygdala damage compromises fear recognition has not been identified. Returning to patient SM, we now show that her impairment stems from an inability to make normal use of information from the eye region of faces when judging emotions, a defect we trace to a lack of spontaneous fixations on the eyes during free viewing of faces. Although SM fails to look normally at the eye region in all facial expressions, her selective impairment in recognizing fear is explained by the fact that the eyes are the most important feature for identifying this emotion. Notably, SM's recognition of fearful faces became entirely normal when she was instructed explicitly to look at the eyes. This finding provides a mechanism to explain the amygdala's role in fear recognition, and points to new approaches for the possible rehabilitation of patients with defective emotion perception.
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20 |
807 |
4
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Abstract
When horseradish peroxidase is injected into the optic tectum of a chick, axons of ganglion cells transport it centripetally to their cell bodies in the retina at a rate of about 72 millimeters per day. After intraocular injections in the young chick, the peroxidase is transported centripetally along efferent axons, and is concentrated in cell bodies within the isthmo-optic nucleus. This retrograde movement of protein from axon terminal to cell body suggests a possible mechanism by which neurons respond to their target areas.
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53 |
638 |
5
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Abstract
A review of patents and literature reveals an evolution in materials technologies. The evolution has been driven by an increased understanding of the physiological needs of the cornea, beginning with the first hydrogel lenses developed by Wichterle, followed by a variety of high water hydrogels. Oxygen transmission requirements have been addressed through the use of siloxane and fluorosiloxane containing hydrogels. An important development has been the appreciation of the importance of polymer phase morphology on lens movement on the eye. In parallel with these activities have come the advancements in materials suitable to high volume, low cost production necessary for today's daily disposable lenses.
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Review |
24 |
469 |
6
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Abstract
A genetic screen was designed in Drosophila to interrogate its genome for mutations sufficient to cause noninvasive tumors of the eye disc to invade neighboring or distant tissues. We found that cooperation between oncogenic RasV12 expression and inactivation of any one of a number of genes affecting cell polarity leads to metastatic behavior, including basement membrane degradation, loss of E-cadherin expression, migration, invasion, and secondary tumor formation. Inactivation of these cell polarity genes cannot drive metastatic behavior alone or in combination with other tumor-initiating alterations. These findings suggest that the oncogenic background of tissues makes a distinct contribution toward metastatic development.
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Research Support, U.S. Gov't, P.H.S. |
22 |
460 |
7
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Itier RJ, Batty M. Neural bases of eye and gaze processing: the core of social cognition. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2009; 33:843-63. [PMID: 19428496 PMCID: PMC3925117 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2009.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 393] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2008] [Revised: 01/20/2009] [Accepted: 02/12/2009] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Eyes and gaze are very important stimuli for human social interactions. Recent studies suggest that impairments in recognizing face identity, facial emotions or in inferring attention and intentions of others could be linked to difficulties in extracting the relevant information from the eye region including gaze direction. In this review, we address the central role of eyes and gaze in social cognition. We start with behavioral data demonstrating the importance of the eye region and the impact of gaze on the most significant aspects of face processing. We review neuropsychological cases and data from various imaging techniques such as fMRI/PET and ERP/MEG, in an attempt to best describe the spatio-temporal networks underlying these processes. The existence of a neuronal eye detector mechanism is discussed as well as the links between eye gaze and social cognition impairments in autism. We suggest impairments in processing eyes and gaze may represent a core deficiency in several other brain pathologies and may be central to abnormal social cognition.
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Review |
16 |
393 |
8
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Journal Article |
27 |
386 |
9
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62 |
376 |
10
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Divac I. Magnocellular nuclei of the basal forebrain project to neocortex, brain stem, and olfactory bulb. Review of some functional correlates. Brain Res 1975; 93:385-98. [PMID: 1174977 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(75)90178-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 375] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Horseradish peroxidase was injected into the neocortex of squirrel monkeys, rats, tree shrews and one opossum, in the brain stem of one squirrel monkey and rats, and in the olfactory bulb, the corpus vitreum or the vascular system of rats. Following the cortical, brain stem and bulbar injections labeled cells were found (predominatly ipsilaterally) in the magnocellular nuclei of the basal forebrain: nucleus of the diagonal band, the magnocellular preoptic nucleus and nucleus basalis. These nuclei may, therefore, be classified together hodologically as well as cytologically and histochemically. The number of labeled cells was proportional to the size of the injected region. It is uncertain whether the same cells project to all target regions. Large labeled cells were found scattered among pallidal and entopeduncular neurons in rats with cortical or brain stem injections. These neurons may be the equivalent to the nucleus basalis in other species.
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50 |
375 |
11
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Watkins KE, Strafella AP, Paus T. Seeing and hearing speech excites the motor system involved in speech production. Neuropsychologia 2003; 41:989-94. [PMID: 12667534 DOI: 10.1016/s0028-3932(02)00316-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 348] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The perception of action is associated with increased activity in motor regions, implicating such regions in the recognition, understanding and imitation of actions. We examined the possibility that perception of speech, both auditory and visual, would also result in changes in the excitability of the motor system underlying speech production. Transcranial magnetic stimulation was applied to the face area of primary motor cortex to elicit motor-evoked potentials in the lip muscles. The size of the motor-evoked potentials was compared under the following conditions: listening to speech, listening to non-verbal sounds, viewing speech-related lip movements, and viewing eye and brow movements. Compared to control conditions, listening to and viewing speech enhanced the size of the motor-evoked potential. This effect was only seen in response to stimulation of the left hemisphere; stimulation of the right hemisphere produced no changes in motor-evoked potentials in any of the conditions. In a control experiment, the size of the motor-evoked potentials elicited in the muscles of the right hand did not differ among conditions, suggesting that speech-related changes in excitability are specific to the lip muscles. These results provide evidence that both auditory and visual speech perception facilitate the excitability of the motor system involved in speech production.
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Comparative Study |
22 |
348 |
12
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BISHOP PO, KOZAK W, VAKKUR GJ. Some quantitative aspects of the cat's eye: axis and plane of reference, visual field co-ordinates and optics. J Physiol 1998; 163:466-502. [PMID: 13971235 PMCID: PMC1359720 DOI: 10.1113/jphysiol.1962.sp006990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 347] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
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Journal Article |
27 |
347 |
13
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Land MF. The physics and biology of animal reflectors. PROGRESS IN BIOPHYSICS AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 1972; 24:75-106. [PMID: 4581858 DOI: 10.1016/0079-6107(72)90004-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 341] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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Review |
53 |
341 |
14
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Adolphs R, Baron-Cohen S, Tranel D. Impaired recognition of social emotions following amygdala damage. J Cogn Neurosci 2002; 14:1264-74. [PMID: 12495531 DOI: 10.1162/089892902760807258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 338] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Lesion, functional imaging, and single-unit studies in human and nonhuman animals have demonstrated a role for the amygdala in processing stimuli with emotional and social significance. We investigated the recognition of a wide variety of facial expressions, including basic emotions (e.g., happiness, anger) and social emotions (e.g., guilt, admiration, flirtatiousness). Prior findings with a standardized set of stimuli indicated that recognition of social emotions can be signaled by the eye region of the face and is disproportionately impaired in autism (Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, & Jolliffe, 1997). To test the hypothesis that the recognition of social emotions depends on the amygdala, we administered the same stimuli to 30 subjects with unilateral amygdala damage (16 left, 14 right), 2 with bilateral amygdala damage, 47 brain-damaged controls, and 19 normal controls. Compared with controls, subjects with unilateral or bilateral amygdala damage were impaired when recognizing social emotions; moreover, they were more impaired in recognition of social emotions than in recognition of basic emotions, and, like previously described patients with autism, they were impaired also when asked to recognize social emotions from the eye region of the face alone. The findings suggest that the human amygdala is relatively specialized to process stimuli with complex social significance. The results also provide further support for the idea that some of the impairments in social cognition seen in patients with autism may result from dysfunction of the amygdala.
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23 |
338 |
15
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Blais C, Jack RE, Scheepers C, Fiset D, Caldara R. Culture shapes how we look at faces. PLoS One 2008; 3:e3022. [PMID: 18714387 PMCID: PMC2515341 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0003022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 327] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2008] [Accepted: 07/30/2008] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Face processing, amongst many basic visual skills, is thought to be invariant across all humans. From as early as 1965, studies of eye movements have consistently revealed a systematic triangular sequence of fixations over the eyes and the mouth, suggesting that faces elicit a universal, biologically-determined information extraction pattern. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS Here we monitored the eye movements of Western Caucasian and East Asian observers while they learned, recognized, and categorized by race Western Caucasian and East Asian faces. Western Caucasian observers reproduced a scattered triangular pattern of fixations for faces of both races and across tasks. Contrary to intuition, East Asian observers focused more on the central region of the face. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE These results demonstrate that face processing can no longer be considered as arising from a universal series of perceptual events. The strategy employed to extract visual information from faces differs across cultures.
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Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't |
17 |
327 |
16
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Weigelt S, Koldewyn K, Kanwisher N. Face identity recognition in autism spectrum disorders: a review of behavioral studies. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2011; 36:1060-84. [PMID: 22212588 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2011.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 327] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2011] [Revised: 11/23/2011] [Accepted: 12/14/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Face recognition--the ability to recognize a person from their facial appearance--is essential for normal social interaction. Face recognition deficits have been implicated in the most common disorder of social interaction: autism. Here we ask: is face identity recognition in fact impaired in people with autism? Reviewing behavioral studies we find no strong evidence for a qualitative difference in how facial identity is processed between those with and without autism: markers of typical face identity recognition, such as the face inversion effect, seem to be present in people with autism. However, quantitatively--i.e., how well facial identity is remembered or discriminated--people with autism perform worse than typical individuals. This impairment is particularly clear in face memory and in face perception tasks in which a delay intervenes between sample and test, and less so in tasks with no memory demand. Although some evidence suggests that this deficit may be specific to faces, further evidence on this question is necessary.
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Review |
14 |
327 |
17
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Leib DA, Coen DM, Bogard CL, Hicks KA, Yager DR, Knipe DM, Tyler KL, Schaffer PA. Immediate-early regulatory gene mutants define different stages in the establishment and reactivation of herpes simplex virus latency. J Virol 1989; 63:759-68. [PMID: 2536101 PMCID: PMC247748 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.63.2.759-768.1989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 304] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Using nonsense and deletion mutants of herpes simplex virus type 1, we investigated the roles of three immediate-early proteins (ICP4, ICP27 and ICP0) in the establishment and reactivation of ganglionic latency in a mouse ocular model. DNA hybridization, superinfection-rescue, and cocultivation techniques provided quantitative data that distinguished between the failure of a virus to establish latency in the ganglion and its failure to reactivate. Null mutants with lesions in the genes for ICP4 and ICP27 did not replicate in the eye or in ganglia and failed to establish reactivatable latent infections. Three ICP0 deletion mutants which could replicate in the eye and ganglia varied in their ability to establish and reactivate from the latent state, demonstrating that ICP0 plays a role both in the establishment and the reactivation of latency. The use of viral mutants and a variety of stage-specific assays allowed us to better define the stages in the establishment and reactivation of herpes simplex virus type 1 latency.
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research-article |
36 |
304 |
18
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Berardelli A, Rothwell JC, Day BL, Marsden CD. Pathophysiology of blepharospasm and oromandibular dystonia. Brain 1985; 108 ( Pt 3):593-608. [PMID: 4041776 DOI: 10.1093/brain/108.3.593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 301] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The pathophysiology of reflexes mediated by the fifth and seventh cranial nerves has been studied in 16 patients with blepharospasm and oromandibular dystonia compared with normal age-matched subjects. The EMG activity of the dystonic spasms in the periocular and jaw muscles was similar to that described in other muscles in patients with generalized torsion dystonia. The latency of the R1 and R2 components of the blink reflex and of the corneal reflex was normal. However, the amplitude and the duration of the R1 and R2 and the duration of the corneal reflex were increased. In some patients the R1 component was also present on the side contralateral to the stimulus, while in normal subjects it was present only on the ipsilateral side. The excitability cycle of recovery of the R2 component of the blink reflex after a prior conditioning shock was enhanced in the patients. There were no EEG potentials preceding blepharospasms in the patients, although a Bereitschaftspotential was seen beginning some 500 ms prior to voluntary blinks in the same individuals. Exteroceptive suppression in the contracting masseter and orbicularis oculi muscles was absent in 40 to 50 per cent of the patients. The jaw jerk was present in all the patients with normal latency. These results indicate that the neuronal arcs of the facial reflexes in blepharospasm and oromandibular dystonia are normal. However, there is an abnormal excitatory drive, perhaps from the basal ganglia, to the facial motoneurons and the interneurons which mediate the facial reflexes in the brainstem.
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40 |
301 |
19
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Seo P, Stone JH. The antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-associated vasculitides. Am J Med 2004; 117:39-50. [PMID: 15210387 DOI: 10.1016/j.amjmed.2004.02.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 299] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2003] [Revised: 02/26/2004] [Accepted: 02/26/2004] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Wegener's granulomatosis, microscopic polyangiitis, and Churg-Strauss syndrome are small- to medium-vessel vasculitides linked by overlapping pathology and the presence of antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies (ANCA). Commonly referred to as the ANCA-associated vasculitides, these diseases are challenging to diagnose and to treat. Distinguishing the ANCA-associated vasculitides from other forms of vasculitis or nonvasculitic processes (such as infection) can be particularly difficult. This review describes the clinical and pathologic hallmarks of the ANCA-associated vasculitides, discusses the role of ANCA assays in diagnosis and treatment, and outlines an approach to the evaluation and management of these diseases.
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Review |
21 |
299 |
20
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Ko H, Cossell L, Baragli C, Antolik J, Clopath C, Hofer SB, Mrsic-Flogel TD. The emergence of functional microcircuits in visual cortex. Nature 2013; 496:96-100. [PMID: 23552948 PMCID: PMC4843961 DOI: 10.1038/nature12015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 294] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2012] [Accepted: 02/14/2013] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Sensory processing occurs in neocortical microcircuits in which synaptic connectivity is highly structured and excitatory neurons form subnetworks that process related sensory information. However, the developmental mechanisms underlying the formation of functionally organized connectivity in cortical microcircuits remain unknown. Here we directly relate patterns of excitatory synaptic connectivity to visual response properties of neighbouring layer 2/3 pyramidal neurons in mouse visual cortex at different postnatal ages, using two-photon calcium imaging in vivo and multiple whole-cell recordings in vitro. Although neural responses were already highly selective for visual stimuli at eye opening, neurons responding to similar visual features were not yet preferentially connected, indicating that the emergence of feature selectivity does not depend on the precise arrangement of local synaptic connections. After eye opening, local connectivity reorganized extensively: more connections formed selectively between neurons with similar visual responses and connections were eliminated between visually unresponsive neurons, but the overall connectivity rate did not change. We propose a sequential model of cortical microcircuit development based on activity-dependent mechanisms of plasticity whereby neurons first acquire feature preference by selecting feedforward inputs before the onset of sensory experience--a process that may be facilitated by early electrical coupling between neuronal subsets--and then patterned input drives the formation of functional subnetworks through a redistribution of recurrent synaptic connections.
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research-article |
12 |
294 |
21
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Abstract
Faces are visual objects in our environment that provide strong social cues, with the eyes assuming particular importance. Here we show that the perceived attractiveness of an unfamiliar face increases brain activity in the ventral striatum of the viewer when meeting the person's eye, and decreases activity when eye gaze is directed away. Depending on the direction of gaze, attractiveness can thus activate dopaminergic regions that are strongly linked to reward prediction, indicating that central reward systems may be engaged during the initiation of social interactions.
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24 |
288 |
22
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Abstract
Exposure of male hamsters to cycles of 1 hour of light and 23 hours of darkness causes atrophy of the gonads. Pinealectomy prevents this atrophy, but has no effect on animals exposed to light-dark cycles of 16 : 8. Likewise, removal of both eyes induces gonad atrophy which is prevented by pinealectomy. These data emphasize the importance of the pineal gland in the regulation of photoperiodic influences on the gonads.
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60 |
283 |
23
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WALD G. The Receptors of Human Color Vision: Action spectra of three visual pigments in human cones account for normal color vision and color-blindness. Science 1964; 145:1007-16. [PMID: 14172613 DOI: 10.1126/science.145.3636.1007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 279] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
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61 |
279 |
24
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VANDAM LD, DRIPPS RD. Long-term follow-up of patients who received 10,098 spinal anesthetics; syndrome of decreased intracranial pressure (headache and ocular and auditory difficulties). JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION 1956; 161:586-91. [PMID: 13318967 DOI: 10.1001/jama.1956.02970070018005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 278] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
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69 |
278 |
25
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Dadds MR, Perry Y, Hawes DJ, Merz S, Riddell AC, Haines DJ, Solak E, Abeygunawardane AI. Attention to the eyes and fear-recognition deficits in child psychopathy. Br J Psychiatry 2006; 189:280-1. [PMID: 16946366 DOI: 10.1192/bjp.bp.105.018150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 276] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The ability to recognise fear is impaired in people with damage to the amygdala and, interestingly, in adult psychopathy. Here we confirm that deficits in recognising fear exist in children with psychopathic traits. We show for the first time that, as with patients with amygdala damage, this deficit can be temporarily corrected by simply asking them to focus on the eyes of other people. These data support models of psychopathy that emphasise specific dysfunction of the amygdala and suggest an innovative approach for intervening early in the development of psychopathy.
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276 |