Comparison of surgical payer costs and implication on the healthcare expenses between laparoscopic magnetic sphincter augmentation (MSA) and laparoscopic Nissen fundoplication (LNF) in a large healthcare system

Introduction

Magnetic sphincter augmentation (MSA) is a promising antireflux surgical treatment. The cost associated with the device may be perceived as a drawback by payers, which may limit the adoption of this technique. There are limited data regarding the cost of MSA in the management of reflux disease. The aims of the study were to report the clinical outcome and quality of life measures in patients after MSA and to compare the pharmaceutical and procedure payer costs and the disease-related and overall expense of MSA compared to laparoscopic Nissen fundoplication (LNF) from a payer perspective.

Methods and procedures

This prospective observational study was performed in conjunction with the region’s largest health insurance company. Data were collected on patients who underwent MSA over a 2-year period beginning in September 2015 at the study network hospitals. The LNF comparison group was procured from members’ claims data of the payer. Inclusion was predicated by patients having continuous coverage during study period. The total procedural reimbursement and the disease-related and overall medical claims submitted up to 12 months prior to surgery and up to 12 months following surgery were obtained. The payer reimbursement data are presented as allowed cost per member per month (PMPM). These values were then compared between groups.

Results

There were 195 patients who underwent MSA and 1131 that had LNF. MSA results in comparable symptom control, PPI elimination rate, and quality of life measures compared to values reported for LNF in the literature. The median (IQR) reimbursement of surgery was $13,522 (13,195–14,439) for those who underwent MSA and $13,388 (9951–16,261) for patients with LNF, p = 0.02. In patients who underwent MSA, the median reimbursement related to the upper gastrointestinal disease was $ 305 PMPM, at 12 months prior to surgery and $ 104 at 12 months after surgery, representing 66% decrease in cost. These values were $ 233 PMPM and $126 PMPM for patients who underwent LNF, representing a 46% decrease (p = 0.0001). At 12 months following surgery, the reimbursement for overall medical expenses had decreased by 10.7% in the MSA group and 1.4% in the LNF group when compared to the preoperative baseline reimbursement. The reimbursement for PPI use after surgery showed a 95% decrease in the MSA group and 90% among LNF group when compared to the preoperative baseline (p = 0.10).

Conclusion

When compared with LNF, MSA results in a reduction of disease-related expenses for the payer in the year following surgery. While MSA is associated with a higher procedural payer cost compared to LNF, payer costs may offset due to reduction in the expenses after surgery.

Antireflux Surgery in the USA: Influence of Surgical Volume on Perioperative Outcomes and Costs-Time for Centralization?

BACKGROUND

Few studies have analyzed the relationship between surgical volume and outcomes after antireflux procedures. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of surgical volume on postoperative results and costs for patients undergoing surgery for gastroesophageal reflux disease.

METHODS

We analyzed the National Inpatient Sample (period 2000-2013). Adult patients (≥18 years old) with gastroesophageal reflux disease who underwent fundoplication were included. Hospital surgical volume was determined using the 30th and 60th percentile cut points using weighted discharges and categorized as low (<10 operations/year), intermediate (10-25 operations/year), or high (>25 operations/year). We performed multivariable logistic regression models to assess the effect of surgical volume on patient outcomes.

RESULTS

The studied cohort comprised 75,544 patients who had antireflux surgery. When operations performed at low-volume hospitals, postoperative bleeding, cardiac failure, renal failure, respiratory failure, and inpatient mortality were more common. In intermediate-volume hospitals, patients were more likely to have postoperative infection, esophageal perforation, bleeding, cardiac failure, renal failure, and respiratory failure. The length of hospital stay was longer at low- and intermediate-volume hospitals (1.08 and 0.55 days longer, respectively). There was an increase in charges of 5120 dollars per patient at low-volume centers, and 4010 dollars per patient at intermediate-volume centers.

CONCLUSIONS

When antireflux surgery is performed at high-volume hospitals, morbidity is lower, length of hospital stay is shorter, and costs for the healthcare system are decreased.

POEM is a cost-effective procedure: cost-utility analysis of endoscopic and surgical treatment options in the management of achalasia

BACKGROUND

Achalasia is a rare motility disorder of the esophagus. Treatment is palliative with the goal of symptom remission and slowing the progression of the disease. Treatment options include per oral endoscopic myotomy (POEM), laparoscopic Heller myotomy (LM) and endoscopic treatments such as pneumatic dilation (PD) and botulinum toxin type A injections (BI). We evaluate the economics and cost-effectiveness of treating achalasia.

METHODS

We performed cost analysis for POEM, LM, PD and BI at our institution from 2011 to 2015. Cost of LM was set to 1, and other procedures are presented as percentage change. Cost-effectiveness was calculated based on cost, number of interventions required for optimal results for dilations and injections and efficacy reported in the current literature. Incremental cost-effectiveness ratio was calculated by a cost-utility analysis using quality-adjusted life year gained, defined as a symptom-free year in a patient with achalasia.

RESULTS

Average number of interventions required was 2.3 dilations or two injections for efficacies of 80 and 61 %, respectively. POEM cost 1.058 times the cost of LM, and PD and BI cost 0.559 and 0.448 times the cost of LM. Annual cost per cure over a period of 4 years for POEM, and LM were consistently equivalent, trending the same as PD although this has a lower initial cost. The cost per cure of BI remains stable over 3 years and then doubles.

CONCLUSION

The cost-effectiveness of POEM and LM is equivalent. Myotomy, either surgical or endoscopic, is more cost-effective than BI due to high failure rates of the economical intervention. When treatment is being considered BI should be utilized in patients with less than 2-year life expectancy. Pneumatic dilations are cost-effective and are an acceptable approach to treatment of achalasia, although myotomy has a lower relapse rate and is cost-effective compared to PD after 2 years.

[Antireflux surgery more cost-effective than medication after all?]

Although fundoplication has been found effective in the treatment of reflux disease, its long-term results have raised doubts due to the large number of patients taking acid blocker medication after the operation. Based on the five-year follow-up of the REFLUX study, reflux symptoms and quality of life associated with reflux were improved after the operation. Laparoscopic fundoplication was found to be a cost-effective form of treatment among those having a chronic reflux disease. The operation can be recommended for treating reflux disease in patients exhibiting a non-optimal PPI drug response.

Cost-utility of laparoscopic Nissen fundoplication versus proton pump inhibitors for chronic and controlled gastroesophageal reflux disease: a 3-year prospective randomized controlled trial and economic evaluation

BACKGROUND

Very few randomized controlled trials (RCTs) have compared laparoscopic Nissen fundoplication (LNF) to proton pump inhibitors (PPI) medical management for patients with chronic gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). Larger RCTs have been relatively short in duration, and have reported mixed results regarding symptom control and effect on quality of life (QOL). Economic evaluations have reported conflicting results.

OBJECTIVES

To determine the incremental cost-utility of LNF versus PPI for treating patients with chronic and controlled GERD over 3 years from the societal perspective.

METHODS

Economic evaluation was conducted alongside a RCT that enrolled 104 patients from October 2000 to September 2004. Primary study outcome was GERD symptoms (secondary outcomes included QOL and cost-utility). Resource utilization and QOL data collected at regular follow-up intervals determined incremental cost/QALY gained. Stochastic uncertainty was assessed using bootstrapping and methodologic assumptions were assessed using sensitivity analysis.

RESULTS

No statistically significant differences in GERD symptom scores, but LNF did result in fewer heartburn days and improved QOL. Costs were higher for LNF patients by $3205/patient over 3 years but QOL was also higher as measured by either QOL instrument. Based on total costs, incremental cost-utility of LNF was $29,404/QALY gained using the Health Utility Index 3. Cost-utility results were sensitive to the utility instrument used ($29,404/QALY for Health Utility Index 3, $31,117/QALY for the Short Form 6D, and $76,310/QALY for EuroQol 5D) and if current lower prices for PPIs were used in the analysis.

CONCLUSIONS

Results varied depending on resource use/costs included in the analysis, the QOL instrument used, and the cost of PPIs; however, LNF was generally found to be a cost-effective treatment for patients with symptomatic controlled GERD requiring long-term management.

Safety, efficacy, and cost-effectiveness of common laparoscopic procedures

BACKGROUND

Laparoscopic surgery has been shown to offer superior surgical outcomes for most abdominal surgical procedures. However, there is hardly any evidence on surgical outcomes with patient risk stratification. This study aimed to compare outcomes of common laparoscopic and open surgical procedures for varying illness severity.

METHODS

A retrospective analysis of surgical outcomes for six commonly performed surgical procedures including cholecystectomy, appendectomy, reflux surgery, gastric bypass surgery, ventral hernia repair, and colectomy was performed using the University HealthSystem Consortium (UHC) Clinical Database/Resource Manager (CDB/RM). The 3-year discharge data for the six commonly performed laparoscopic surgical procedures were analyzed for outcome measures including observed mortality, overall patient morbidity, intensive care unit (ICU) admissions, 30-day readmissions, length of hospital stay, and hospital costs.

RESULTS

In this study, 208,314 patients underwent one of six common surgical procedures by either the open or the laparoscopic approach. Overall, the laparoscopic approach showed significantly lower mortality, reduced morbidity, fewer ICU admissions and 30-day readmissions, shorter hospital stay, and significantly reduced hospital costs for all the procedures. At stratification by illness severity, the laparoscopic group showed better or comparable surgical outcomes across all the illness severity groups. However, the observed mortality was comparable for the minor and moderate severity patients between laparoscopic and open surgery for most procedures. The 30-day readmission rate for major/extreme severity patients was comparable between the two groups for most surgical procedures.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrated the superiority of laparoscopy over conventional open surgery across all illness severity risk groups for common surgical procedures. The results in general show that laparoscopic surgery is safe, efficacious, and cost-effective compared with open surgery and suggest that laparoscopic surgery should be the procedure of choice for all common surgical procedures, regardless of illness severity.

Laparoscopic fundoplication compared with medical management for gastro-oesophageal reflux disease: cost effectiveness study

OBJECTIVE

To describe the long term costs, health benefits, and cost effectiveness of laparoscopic surgery compared with those of continued medical management for patients with gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (GORD).

DESIGN

We estimated resource use and costs for the first year on the basis of data from the REFLUX trial. A Markov model was used to extrapolate cost and health benefit over a lifetime using data collected in the REFLUX trial and other sources.

PARTICIPANTS

The model compared laparoscopic surgery and continued proton pump inhibitors in male patients aged 45 and stable on GORD medication.

INTERVENTION

Laparoscopic surgery versus continued medical management.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

We estimated quality adjusted life years and GORD related costs to the health service over a lifetime. Sensitivity analyses considered other plausible scenarios, in particular size and duration of treatment effect and the GORD symptoms of patients in whom surgery is unsuccessful. Main results The base case model indicated that surgery is likely to be considered cost effective on average with an incremental cost effectiveness ratio of pound2648 (euro3110; US$4385) per quality adjusted life year and that the probability that surgery is cost effective is 0.94 at a threshold incremental cost effectiveness ratio of pound20 000. The results were sensitive to some assumptions within the extrapolation modelling.

CONCLUSION

Surgery seems to be more cost effective on average than medical management in many of the scenarios examined in this study. Surgery might not be cost effective if the treatment effect does not persist over the long term, if patients who return to medical management have poor health related quality of life, or if proton pump inhibitors were cheaper. Further follow-up of patients from the REFLUX trial may be valuable.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ISRCTN15517081.

A Financial Analysis of Pediatric Laparoscopic Versus Open Fundoplication

INTRODUCTION

Laparoscopic fundoplication (LF) is rapidly replacing open fundoplication (OF) for correcting symptomatic gastroesophageal reflux (GER) in infants and children. In this study, we compared various clinical and financial parameters to determine if one technique is superior.

METHODS

With Institutional Review Board approval, charts and charge data for 50 consecutive patients undergoing elective LF or OF were reviewed in 2003 and 2004 (n = 100). Clinical variables evaluated included gender, age, weight, length of stay (LOS), operating time (OT), and time to initial (IF) and full (FF) feedings. Financial charges that were reviewed included anesthesia, central supply and sterilization, equipment, operating suite, hospital room and board, pharmacy, and total charges.

RESULTS

The groups were equally matched in relation to gender, age, and weight. The table below illustrates the statistically significant differences (P < 0.05) between the groups. Favoring LNF LOS (1.2 vs. 2.9 days) IF (7.3 vs. 27.9 hours) FF (21.8 vs. 42.9 hours) Equipment ($1,006 vs. $1,609) Hospital Room ($1,290 vs. $2,847) Pharmacy ($180 vs. $461), Favoring OF OT (77 vs. 91 minutes) Anesthesia ($389 vs. $475) Central Supply and Sterilization ($1,367 vs. $2,515) Operating Suite ($4,058 vs. $5,142) Total charges were similar (LF, $11,449; OF, $11,632).

CONCLUSIONS

Interestingly, although there were statistical differences in every charge category, total charges for LF and OF did not differ significantly. Thus, traditionally higher expenses from longer OT for LF seem to be offset by financial benefits, such as shorter LOS, reduced discomfort as evidenced by lower narcotic charges, and earlier IF/FF.

Cost Analysis of Minimally Invasive Surgery in a Pediatric Setting

AIMS

The aims of this study was to determine whether an active policy of cost curtailment would impact on the theater cost of laparoscopic surgery in a pediatric setting; to document the extent of cost changes over time and to identify factors that adversely influence expenditure; and to investigate whether the surgeon is a significant factor in the price of the procedure.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A prospective audit of laparoscopic procedures was performed in a single unit over a 36-month period. Detailed costs of theater inventory for all procedures were compiled on a case-by-case basis and recorded on a database. The cost of six index procedures were collated and changes over the period of the study analyzed. The factors responsible for increased expenditure were flagged and appraised to enable the implementation of cost-saving measures. The prices of the laparoscopic equipment were based on invoiced figures provided by hospital managers, and no long-term outcome measures were taken into account.

RESULTS

A total of 179 cases were performed by six surgeons over a 3-year period between January 1, 2003 and December 31, 2005, with no adverse intraoperative events. The procedures studied in further detail were appendicectomy (n = 50), fundoplication (n = 25), cholecystectomy (n = 12), nephrectomy (n = 10), Fowler Stevens for undescended testes (n = 10), and modified Palomo operations for varicocoele (n = 7). The mean cost of these procedures fell year by year over the period of study but was significant only in appendicectomy (P = 0.017). For this procedure, there was a significant difference in costs between the various surgeons (P = 0.007), but this trend was not noted with the other procedures. There were no major intraoperative events, although 2 patients required conversion owing to technical difficulties posed by the cases. Among the factors that influenced costs were the use of disposables, particularly for hemostasis and suctioning, and an inability to procure reuseable instruments.

CONCLUSIONS

The costs of commonly performed laparoscopic procedures are falling year by year. The surgeon is a factor in the costs of some procedures. A cost-saving strategy has not been compromised of patient safety; however, some cost-saving measures, though attractive, are labor intensive and are not practical. An overall commitment to the sensible use of health care resources translates into savings for hospitals, thereby strengthening the case for laparoscopic surgery.

Robot-assisted Versus Conventional Laparoscopic Nissen Fundoplication

BACKGROUND

Laparoscopic Nissen fundoplication offers clear benefits for our patients, but requires advanced laparoscopic skills. Robotic assistance in laparoscopic antireflux surgery improves dexterity skills and shortens learning curve, possibly leading to faster, more precise, and safer laparoscopic surgery.

METHODS

We review our first 11 cases of robot-assisted laparoscopic Nissen fundoplication using the 4-armed daVinci surgical system, comparing them with patients who underwent conventional laparoscopic Nissen fundoplication for gastroesophageal reflux disease in the same period.

RESULTS

Robot-assisted laparoscopic Nissen fundoplication did not result in more complications. However, the use of robotic assistance took an extra-47 minutes to complete the operation and costs were raised with an accessory euro 987.47.

CONCLUSIONS

The use of robotic assistance in laparoscopic antireflux surgery is safe and feasible, but results in longer operating time and higher costs compared with conventional laparoscopic surgery without proven benefit at this moment.

A comparison of the cost effectiveness of pharmacotherapy or surgery (laparoscopic fundoplication) in the treatment of GORD

BACKGROUND

Gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (GORD) causes some of the most frequently seen symptoms in both primary and secondary care. An estimated 4-5 patients (age range 18-60 years) per 10,000 (0.045% of the general population) are receiving maintenance proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) for oesophagitis and reflux. The treatment of reflux disease represents significant prescription drug costs to the UK NHS. An alternative to lifelong pharmacotherapy is surgical treatment of reflux using the laparoscopic fundoplication technique to effect a cure. A multicentre study (REFLUX trial) comparing laparoscopic fundoplication with medical management (PPIs) among patients with GORD is currently underway in the UK. This study includes data collection to contribute to a cost-effectiveness analysis.

OBJECTIVE

To generate some preliminary estimates of the cost effectiveness of surgical and medical management of GORD to guide UK NHS decision making before the REFLUX trial reports.

METHODS

A Markov model was developed in Excel. Probabilistic sensitivity analysis was employed to assess the uncertainty associated with the point estimates. Two strategies were compared: long-term medical management or immediate laparoscopic surgery for GORD. Health outcomes were expressed in terms of QALYs with a lifetime time horizon (30 years) for a patient aged 45 years at commencement of treatment. Costs (pound, 2004 values) of drugs and costs associated with surgery were obtained from five of the REFLUX study centres. Costs and outcomes were discounted by 3.5% per anum. Value of information analysis was used to quantify the cost of uncertainty associated with the decision about which therapy to adopt, indicating the maximum value of future research.

RESULTS

Treatment with laparoscopic fundoplication is the most costly strategy but is also associated with more QALYs. The incremental cost per additional QALY for surgery versus medical management was 180 pounds. However, the cost effectiveness of surgery was uncertain, and the probability that it is cost effective at the threshold of 30,000 pounds per QALY was 0.639. Value of information analysis suggests that further research in this area could be potentially worthwhile. Specifically, this research should focus on the health-related quality of life of patients on medical management or post-surgery.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of the model suggest that, on the basis of current evidence, laparoscopic fundoplication represents a cost effective means of treating GORD rather than lifelong medical management.

Evaluation of da Vinci Nissen fundoplication clinical results and cost minimization

BACKGROUND

A new technical tool was developed and introduced into the therapeutic field of videoscopic surgery-robotic telemanipulation surgery. The aim of this study is to investigate in a prospective randomized trial the feasibility of the Nissen procedure using the da Vinci and to evaluate the benefits and the costs of this new technique compared with the conventional laparoscopic approach.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Twenty patients with gastro-esophageal reflux disease (GERD) were randomized into laparoscopic Nissen versus robot-assisted Nissen fundoplication. All the patients signed an informed consent document. The time data of the procedure, the efficacy of the instruments, the intra-operative incidents, postoperative morbidity, and cost minimization are presented.

RESULTS

Nine patients were assigned to the robot, and 11 to the laparoscopic procedure. Both groups were similar in age, male/female ratio, and body mass index. The robot procedure time was significantly longer. The hospital stay and the alimentation day were similar. The number of postoperative complaints was similar after the 1st, 6th, and 12th postoperative months. However, on the 3rd postoperative month, the number of complaints was significantly higher in the robot group. The robot procedure was more expensive with regard to the instrumentation and reusable material, the nursing costs, the investment costs, and the maintenance costs.

CONCLUSIONS

No clear advantage of using robotics in the Nissen procedure was observed. The procedure seems to be feasible and safe. The technique is limited because of unadapted instruments. The disadvantages are the high costs and prolonged operative time.

Randomized clinical trial and follow-up study of cost-effectiveness of laparoscopic versus conventional Nissen fundoplication

BACKGROUND

Laparoscopic Nissen fundoplication (LNF) has essentially replaced its conventional open counterpart (CNF). An economic evaluation of LNF compared with CNF based on prospective data with adequate follow-up is lacking.

METHODS

Data from two consecutive studies (a randomized clinical trial (RCT) of 57 patients undergoing LNF and 46 undergoing CNF that was terminated prematurely, and a follow-up study of 121 consecutive patients with LNF) were combined to determine incremental cost-effectiveness 1 year after surgery.

RESULTS

Mean operating time, reoperation rate and hospital costs of LNF were lower in the second series. The mean overall hospital cost per patient was euro 9126 for LNF and euro 6989 for CNF at 1 year in the initial RCT, and euro 7782 in the second LNF series. The success rate of both LNF and CNF at 1 year was 91 per cent in the RCT, and LNF was successful in 90.1 per cent in the second series. A cost reduction of euro 998 for LNF would cancel out the cost advantage of CNF. Similarly, if the reoperation rate after LNF decreased from 0.05 to below 0.008 and/or if the mean duration of sick leave after LNF was reduced from 67.2 to less than 61.1 days, the procedure would become less expensive than CNF. Complications, reoperation rate and quality of life after both operations were similar.

CONCLUSION

Including reinterventions, the outcome at 1 year after LNF and CNF was similar. In a well organized setting with appropriate expertise, the cost advantage of CNF may be neutralized.

Minimally invasive: minimally reimbursed? An examination of six laparoscopic surgical procedures

It is generally believed that minimally invasive surgery (MIS) results in less postoperative pain, fewer complications, and shorter recovery periods compared with open procedures. Yet despite these benefits, the level of reimbursement assigned to the surgeon by United States health-care payers is often lower than that for open procedures. Furthermore, the cost of performing a MIS may be higher vs an open procedure because specialized equipment, increased surgical time, or both may be required. In this report, we examine the issue by comparing reimbursements for MIS with open procedures, summarizing the medical literature on MIS vs open surgical procedures, and offering recommendations for payers who establish reimbursement policies. The review is focused on six MIS procedures where outcomes data exist: laparoscopic cholecystectomy (lap chole), laparoscopic colectomy (LC), laparoscopic fundoplication (LF), laparoscopic hysterectomy (LH), laparoscopic ventral hernia repair (LVHR), and laparoscopic appendectomy (LA). Outcomes summarized were length of hospital stay (LOS), operating room time, operating room costs, complications, and return to work or normal activities. The level of scientific evidence was assigned to each study using predetermined criteria. A total of 112 articles were reviewed: 14 for lap chole, 26 for LC, 7 for LF, 19 for LH, 9 for LVHR, and 37 for LA. The data demonstrate that these procedures result in reduced hospital stay, reduced hospital costs, and faster return to work or normal activities. Yet, the operating room time and costs are frequently higher for MIS. These findings suggest that as both the outcomes value and level of operating room resources are greater, MIS warrants reimbursement that meets or exceeds that of open procedures.

Heller myotomy vs Heller myotomy plus Dor fundoplication: cost-utility analysis of a randomized trial

BACKGROUND

The addition of a Dor antireflux procedure reduces the risk of pathologic gastroesophageal reflux (GER) by ninefold following laparoscopic Heller myotomy for achalasia. It is not clear, however, how these benefits compare with the increased cost of the fundoplication. The objective of this study was to estimate the cost-effectiveness of Heller myotomy plus Dor fundoplication compared with Heller alone in patients with achalasia.

METHODS

We conducted a cost-utility analysis using the Markov simulation model to examine the two treatment alternatives. The model estimated the total expected costs of each strategy over a 10-year time horizon. Data for the model were derived from our randomized clinical trial. The strategies were compared using the method of incremental cost-effectiveness analysis.

RESULTS

The incidence of pathologic GER was 47.6% (10 of 21 patients) in the Heller group and 9.1% (2 of 22 patients) in the Heller plus Dor group using an intention-to-treat analysis (p = 0.005). Heller plus Dor was associated with a significant reduction in the risk of GERD (relative risk 0.11; 95% confidence interval 0.02-0.59; p = 0.01). The cost of surgery was significantly higher for Heller plus Dor than for Heller alone (mean difference $942; p = 0.04), secondary to a longer operating room time (mean difference 40 min; p = 0.01). At a time horizon of 10 years, when proton pump inhibitor (PPI) therapy costs are considered, the cost-utility analysis demonstrates that Heller plus Dor surgery is associated with a total cost of $6,861 per patient and a quality-adjusted life expectancy of 9.9 years, whereas Heller-alone surgery is associated with a cost of $9,541 per patient and a quality-adjusted life expectancy of 9.5 years.

CONCLUSIONS

In achalasia patients, Heller myotomy plus Dor fundoplication is preferred to Heller alone because it is both more effective in preventing postoperative GERD and more cost-effective at a time horizon of 10 years.

Long-term outcomes of endoluminal gastroplication: a U.S. multicenter trial

BACKGROUND

Endoluminal gastroplication has shown promise for the treatment of GERD in short-term studies. Until now, long-term outcome data have been lacking.

METHODS

A prospective, multicenter trial enrolled 85 patients with GERD to be treated with endoluminal gastroplication. Inclusion criteria were 3 or more heartburn or regurgitation episodes per week, >4.2% time in 24 hours with esophageal pH < 4, and dependency on antisecretory medications. Exclusion criteria were the presence of varices, achalasia, aperistalsis, or previous gastric resection. Patients underwent manometry, 24-hour pH monitoring, and symptom severity scoring before and after the procedure. Patient diaries were used to assess medication use and to estimate annual medication cost.

RESULTS

At 1- and 2-year follow-up, patients had significant reductions in median heartburn symptom scores (72 at baseline [interquartile range (IQR) 90-48] vs. 4 at 12 months [IQR 43-0] and 16 at 24 months [IQR 53-3.5]; p < 0.0001 vs. baseline) and median regurgitation symptoms (2 at baseline [IQR 3-1] vs. 0 at 12 months (IQR 1-0) and 1 at 24 months [IQR 1-0]; p < 0.0001 vs. baseline). Of all patients, 59% and 52% showed heartburn symptom resolution at 12 and 24 months, respectively ( p < 0.0001 vs. baseline). Also, 83% and 77% had regurgitation symptom resolution at 12 and 24 months, respectively (p < 0.0001 vs. baseline). Proton pump inhibitor use also was significantly reduced at 12 and 24 months after the procedure. At 2-year follow-up, median annualized medication costs were reduced by 88% (1381 US dollars) (p < 0.0001). Endoluminal gastroplication significantly reduced the duration and the number of episodes of esophageal acid exposure (p < 0.0001 vs. baseline). Only 7 patients experienced adverse events.

CONCLUSIONS

Endoscopic gastroplication is safe and effective, and is associated with symptom reductions in patients with GERD for at least 24 months.

Are endoscopic antireflux therapies cost-effective compared with laparoscopic fundoplication?

BACKGROUND AND STUDY AIMS

A number of endoscopic antireflux therapies (EATs) have emerged as potential nonmedical treatment options for patients with gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). Concerns about clinical efficacy and costs have given rise to debate about their role in GERD management. The costs of laparoscopic fundoplication (LF) were compared with the costs of EAT when used in a sequential strategy that reserves the option of LF for EAT failure.

METHODS

A simple mathematical criterion of direct medical costs was applied. Published articles concerning EAT were reviewed to assess its effectiveness, durability and costs, in order to estimate the parameters of the model. The costs of EAT and LF were evaluated from the perspective of a German third-party payer. Only direct medical costs were considered.

RESULTS

Assuming that EAT has no impact on potential LF later on, the outcome of both strategies (LF, or EAT first with LF in case of failure of EAT) is identical and preference is a simple question of costs. The sequential strategy in nonmedical GERD treatment would be preferable if the long-term relief rate with EAT exceeds the ratio of the cost of EAT to the cost of LF. Long-term success rates of EAT do not exceed 0.65. At current prices EAT is clearly not cost-effective in Germany.

CONCLUSION

Our simple criterion indicates that EAT would only be cost-effective and beneficial in a sequential strategy if the costs of EAT were to be decreased to around 30 % of current retail prices. However, long-term studies and randomized controlled trials are necessary to finally determine the role of EAT in GERD treatment, and the preference may change in either direction.

[Design and use of patient pathways in general surgery]

BACKGROUND

Clinical pathways are a new initiative intended to reduce costs while maintaining or even improving the quality of care. Based on treatment guidelines, patient pathways display an optimal sequence of staff actions in the preoperative, operative, and postoperative in- and outpatient treatment.

METHODS

In this study, patient pathways were developed for selected elective general surgical disease entities following a new modular approach. All elements of care and their direct costs to the hospital were identified. Multidisciplinary teams of physicians, nurses, and administrative staff constructed and implemented the patient pathways.

RESULTS

In the 1-year pilot phase, we developed and implemented 7 pathways with 16 subpathways: open herniorrhaphy, laparoscopic cholecystectomy and fundoplication, thyroidectomy, surgical treatment of diverticulitis and colon carcinoma and kidney transplantation.

CONCLUSIONS

Patient pathways combine the management of care, hospital processes, and costs in a new integrated concept. Patient pathways streamline and standardize care, facilitate communication, and contribute to cost control efforts.

[Results of randomised clinical trial: not necessarily positively received]

The acceptance for publication and the implementation of the results of a randomised clinical trial are determined not only by the quality of the study, but also by its timing and the prevailing opinion prior to the study. In a randomised study, comparing laparoscopic and open fundoplication in patients with gastro-oesophageal reflux, interim analysis showed statistically significantly more complications related to laparoscopic intervention. Publication of the study led to an avalanche of criticism focusing mainly on the inexperience of the surgeons. The cost-effectiveness analysis, showing that open fundoplication had fewer complications and was cheaper, was repeatedly rejected by established journals mainly because of criticism of surgical aspects of the study. In the meanwhile a study on a second group of 100 patients was initiated. They underwent laparoscopic fundoplication conducted by two experienced surgeons. The results were statistically significantly better than in the laparoscopic arm of the initial randomised trial. The learning curve proved to be longer than had previously been thought.

Re-examination of the cost-effectiveness of surgical versus medical therapy in patients with gastroesophageal reflux disease: the value of long-term data collection

OBJECTIVES

For patients with reflux esophagitis, long-term therapeutic options include proton pump inhibitor (PPI) therapy and/or antireflux surgery. An earlier cost-effectiveness analysis concluded that at 5 yr, medical therapy was less expensive but similarly effective to fundoplication, but the results were sensitive to estimates on quality of life and long-term medication usage, which were derived from "expert opinion." Recently, data from randomized controlled trials addressing these variables have become available. We have incorporated these new data into a revised Markov model to examine the cost-effectiveness of surgical versus medical therapy in patients with severe reflux esophagitis.

METHODS

A Markov simulation model was constructed using specialized software (DATA PRO 4.0, Williamstown, MA). Total expected costs and quality-adjusted life-years were calculated for long-term medical therapy and for laparoscopic Nissen fundoplication. Probabilities were obtained from the medical literature using Medline. Procedural and hospitalization costs used were the average Medicare reimbursements at our institution. Medication costs were the average wholesale price. The analysis was extended over a 10-yr time horizon at a discount rate of 3%.

RESULTS

The discounted analysis shows that medical therapy is associated with total costs of 8,798 dollars and 4.59 quality-adjusted life-years, whereas the surgical strategy is more expensive (10,475 dollars) and less effective (4.55 quality-adjusted life-years). The results were robust to most one-way sensitivity analyses.

CONCLUSIONS

Long-term medical therapy with proton pump inhibitors is the preferred strategy for patients with gastroesophageal reflux disease and severe esophagitis. Our study highlights the importance of using primary, patient-derived data rather than expert opinion.

[Robotic fundoplication for gastro-oesophageal reflux disease]

Presented as a possible "second" revolution in general surgery after the introduction of laparoscopy during the last few years, the robotic approach to mini-invasive surgery has not yet witnessed wide, large-scale diffusion among general surgeons and is still considered an "experimental approach". In general surgery, the laparoscopic treatment of gastrooesophageal reflux is the second most frequently performed robot-assisted procedure after cholecystectomy. A review of the literature and an analysis of the costs may allow a preliminary evaluation of the pros and cons of robotic fundoplication, which may then be applicable to other general surgery procedures. Eleven articles report 91 cases of robotic fundoplication (75 Nissen, 9 Thal, 7 Toupet). To date, there is no evidence of benefit in terms of duration of surgery, rate of complications and hospital stay. Moreover, robotic fundoplication is more expensive than the traditional laparoscopic approach (the additional cost per procedure due to robotics is 1,882.97 euros). Only further technological upgrades and advances will make the use of robotics competitive in general surgery. The development of multi-functional instruments and of tactile feedback at the console, enlargement of the three-dimensional laparoscopic view and specific "team" training will enable the use of robotic surgery to be extended to increasingly difficult procedures and to non-specialised environments.

Outpatient laparoscopic surgery: feasibility and consequences for education and health care costs

BACKGROUND

The purpose of this paper is to describe the outcome of ambulatory laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC), antireflux surgery, adrenalectomy and splenectomy and possible implications for surgical education and health care costs.

METHODS

Prospective, observational study 1994-2003.

RESULTS

The success rate of ambulatory treatment was 83.5% in 1060 LC patients, 80% in 113 antireflux procedures, 100% in 22 laparoscopic adrenalectomies, and 75% in 12 laparoscopic splenectomies. In a total number of 1207 patients, health care costs were reduced by almost 700,000 dollars, compared to 1-day hospital stay. The educational potential of same-day surgery is large, due to high numbers of patients, and 80% of our educational potential has been exploited.

CONCLUSION

Ambulatory laparoscopic surgery is cost effective, patient friendly, and appropriate for surgical resident training. Strict organization of security rules is mandatory.

The economics of laparoscopic Nissen fundoplication

BACKGROUND & AIMS

A major impetus for laparoscopic Nissen fundoplication (LNF) is its purported cost savings compared with medical therapy, but few studies have examined these economic outcomes. The aim was to analyze health care costs and use among a cohort of patients undergoing LNF and compare them with patients with medically treated gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD).

METHODS

Comparison of health care use and direct costs from the third-party payer perspective using 13 United HealthCare Plans. Sixty-one patients who underwent LNF from January 1994 to June 1998 and 178 matched controls were used for this study. Outcome variables included the cost of hospital and outpatient visits, hospitalizations, related endoscopic procedures, and pharmacy claims for proton pump inhibitors, H(2) receptor antagonists, and prokinetics. Cost of LNF or index esophagogastroduodenoscopy was not included.

RESULTS

Sixty-one LNF patients and 178 controls were studied. No differences were seen for the costs of office visits and hospital admissions or the number of gastrointestinal procedures. LNF patients had significantly lower gastrointestinal medication costs. Median total health care costs were significantly lower in the LNF group but mean total costs were not different. This was attributable to $201,000 in costs for managing complications in one patient that skewed total health care cost in the LNF group.

CONCLUSIONS

For the 12 months after surgery, LNF reduced costs for gastrointestinal medications but not total costs for the cohort. LNF cost is impacted greatly by the cost of associated complications. Based on these data, LNF does not appear to significantly reduce the direct cost of health care for GERD patients on a population basis.

Motion--Laparoscopic Nissen fundoplication is more cost effective than oral PPI administration: arguments against the motion

Discussion of the cost effectiveness of medical and surgical treatments of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) is plagued by a number of logical fallacies. Several of these defects in reasoning are reviewed. For example, it is inappropriate to compare the costs of therapies unless they are equally effective. The relative cost effectiveness of various treatment options is difficult to determine because monetary expenditures and gains in health status cannot easily be measured in commensurate units. Not everything can be translated into incremental cost effectiveness ratios. Two decision analyses from European investigators seemed to show that Nissen fundoplication was more cost effective than long term acid-suppression therapy, but they failed to consider the costs of surgical complications and failures. The most comprehensive decision analysis, employing a Markov chain model, found that the two treatment options were roughly equivalent, at least during the first seven years of follow-up. Decision analyses often do not reflect actual practice patterns and cannot provide solutions to problems that cannot be solved by appropriate medical reasoning. Moreover, results that are reported by specialized surgical centres probably cannot be duplicated by less experienced surgeons. The increasing incidence of esophageal adenocarcinoma has been erroneously attributed to the use of potent acid-suppressant medications, but the actual cause has been shown to be the decreased prevalence of Helicobacter pylori. There are no significant differences in the incidence of this tumour after medical or surgical therapy of GERD. It is unlikely, however, that arguments will convince proponents of one treatment or another to change their opinions.

Laparoscopic antireflux procedures in children: evaluating the evidence

A growing number of the pediatric antireflux procedures are performed laparoscopically. Although there are no prospective randomized studies comparing conventional open surgery to laparoscopic surgery, there are retrospective and anecdotal data suggesting that the laparoscopic approach is at least as good and, in many cases, better than the open procedure. Once the significant learning curve is achieved, one may attain similar operative times with the benefit of magnification and enhanced visualization of the operative field compared to open surgery. The greatest benefits of laparoscopic antireflux surgery are the cosmetic result, a decrease in postoperative analgesia requirements, and an earlier return to normal daily life for both parents and their children.

Motion--Laparoscopic Nissen fundoplication is more cost effective than oral PPI administration: arguments for the motion

Gastroesophageal reflux disease is a mechanical disorder of the foregut. While medications can only provide symptom relief, surgery can correct the pathophysiological abnormality of the lower esophageal sphincter. The costs of medical and surgical therapy are much greater than the costs of medication or hospitalization alone. In the case of medical therapy, one must consider the costs of serial monitoring and of failed treatment. The effectiveness of treatment also depends on patient-related factors, including weight, socioeconomic factors, smoking, alcohol use, dietary habits and the use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Surgical results depend on the experience and skill of the surgeon, as well as the attributes of the institution in which the procedure is undertaken. Therefore, studies that come from specialized centres may not be applicable to the community. Data from the author's facility indicate that laparoscopic Nissen fundoplication is the most cost effective option when it is undertaken by experienced surgeons on otherwise healthy patients who have documented gastroesophageal reflux disease.

Medical or surgical therapy for erosive reflux esophagitis: cost-utility analysis using a Markov model

OBJECTIVE

To compare the cost and utility of healing and maintenance regimens of omeprazole and laparoscopic Nissen fundoplication (LNF) in the framework of the Canadian medical system.

SUMMARY BACKGROUND DATA

Medical therapy with proton pump inhibitors for endoscopically proven reflux esophagitis is a safe and effective treatment option. Of late, the surgical treatment of choice for this disease has become LNF.

METHODS

The authors' base case was a 45-year-old man with erosive reflux esophagitis refractory to H2-blockers. A cost-utility analysis was performed comparing the two strategies. A two-stage Markov model (healing and maintenance phases) was used to estimate costs and utilities with a time horizon of 5 years. Discounted direct costs were estimated from the perspective of a provincial health ministry, and discounted quality-of-life estimates were derived from the medical literature. Sensitivity analyses were performed to test the robustness of the model to the authors' assumptions and to determine thresholds. A Monte Carlo simulation of 10,000 patients was used to estimate variances and 95% interpercentile ranges.

RESULTS

For the 5-year period studied, LNF was less expensive than omeprazole (3519.89 dollars vs. 5464.87 dollars per patient) and became the more cost-effective option at 3.3 years of follow-up. The authors found that 20 mg/day omeprazole would have to cost less than 38.60 dollars per month before medical therapy became cost effective; conversely, the cost of LNF would have to be more than 5,273.70 dollars or the length of stay more than 4.2 days for medical therapy to be cost effective. Estimates of quality-adjusted life-years did not differ significantly between the two treatment options, and the incremental cost for medical therapy was 129,665 dollars per quality-adjusted life-years gained.

CONCLUSIONS

For patients with severe esophagitis, LNF is a cost-effective alternative to long-term maintenance therapy with proton pump inhibitors.

Early experiences of robotic surgery in children

BACKGROUND

Laparoscopic surgery using a robotic system (Da Vinci) was recently introduced into surgical practice for adult patients. To investigate the feasibility of this system in pediatric surgery, laparoscopic fundoplication (Thal and Nissen), cholecystectomy, and bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy were performed.

METHODS

Eleven children with a mean age of 12 years (range, 7-16 years) underwent either laparoscopic anterior partial fundoplication (Thal, n = 8) or Nissen fundoplication (n = 3) for correction of gastroesophageal reflux disease in the presence of uncontrolled symptoms of regurgitation and pulmonary infection. Two children underwent laparoscopic cholecystectomy due to symptomatic cholecystolithiasis. One child underwent bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy due to a gonadoblastoma.

RESULTS

Mean operating time for fundoplication was 146 min (range, 105-180 min), the operating times for cholecystectomy were 150 and 105 min, and that for salpingo-oophorectomy was 95 min. No complications were registered during either the robotic procedures or the postoperative courses.

CONCLUSIONS

Compared to conventional laparoscopy, the three-dimensional high-quality vision, advanced instrument movement, and improved ergonomic position of the surgeon appear to enhance surgical precision. Robotic surgery in children using the Da Vinci system seems to be feasible and safe. However, the technique is limited due to the fact that instruments adapted to the size of small children are not available. Furthermore, the high costs and prolonged system setup are disadvantages.

Economic implications of current surgical management of gastroesophageal reflux disease

BACKGROUND/PURPOSE

Surgical management of gastroesophageal reflux disease in children has evolved with the development of laparoscopy. Because concerns persist regarding increased costs associated with this technique, the authors studied the economic parameters of antireflux surgery at their institution.

METHODS

Seventy-eight patients undergoing either laparoscopic or open fundoplication were studied retrospectively between June 1998 and June 2000 comparing average operating room costs, total inpatient costs, and length of stay. Univariate comparisons were performed using Student's t test, and multivariate analysis was performed using multiple linear regression.

RESULTS

Univariate analysis showed that patients receiving the laparoscopic procedure had significantly shorter inpatient stays (2.4 v. 3.96 days; P =.004) than those receiving open procedures. Average operating room costs were similar (laparoscopic, $2,611; open, $2,162; P =.237), but total costs for the laparoscopic procedure were lower ($4,484 v $5,129; P =.006). Multivariate analysis results suggested that in addition to procedure type, patients who required an intensive care unit admission incurred $6,595 in additional total costs (P <.0001) and 4.8 additional hospital days (P <.0001). After controlling for other variables, the laparoscopic procedure did not significantly reduce total hospital costs ($447; P =.192) but was associated with a significant decrease in length of stay of 1.3 days (P <.0001).

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that laparoscopic procedures are comparable with open operations in terms of operative costs and that other factors are important determinants of the costs associated with antireflux surgery in children.

Fundoplication and gastrostomy versus image-guided gastrojejunal tube for enteral feeding in neurologically impaired children with gastroesophageal reflux

BACKGROUND

Neurologically impaired children with gastroesophageal reflux (GER) usually are treated with a fundoplication and gastrostomy (FG); however, this approach is associated with a high rate of complications and morbidity. The authors evaluated the image-guided gastrojejunal tube (GJ) as an alternative approach for this group of patients.

METHODS

A retrospective review of 111 neurologically impaired patients with gastroesophageal reflux was performed. Patients underwent either FG (n = 63) or GJ (n = 48). All FGs were performed using an open technique by a pediatric surgeon, and all GJ tubes were placed by an interventional radiologist.

RESULTS

The 2 groups were similar with respect to diagnosis, age, sex and indication for feeding tube. Patients in the GJ group were followed up for an average of 3.11 years, and those in the FG group for 5.71 years. The groups did not differ statistically with respect to most complications (bleeding, peritonitis, aspiration pneumonia, recurrent gastroesophageal reflux [GER], wound infection, failure to thrive, and death), subsequent GER related admissions, or cost. Children in the GJ group were more likely to continue taking antireflux medication after the procedure (P <.05). Also, there was a trend for GJ patients to have an increased incidence of bowel obstruction or intussusception (20.8% v 7.9%). Of the FG patients 36.5% experienced retching, and 12.7% experienced dysphagia. Eighty-five percent of patients in the GJ group experienced GJ tube-specific complications (breakage, blockage, dislodgment), and GJ tube manipulations were required an average of 1.68 times per year follow-up. Nine patients (14.3%) in the FG group had wrap failure, with 7 (11.1%) of these children requiring repeat fundoplication. In the GJ group, 8.3% of patients went on to require a fundoplication for persistent problems. A total of 14.5% of GJ patients had their tube removed by the end of the follow-up period because they no longer needed the tube for feeding.

CONCLUSIONS

Image-guided gastrojejunal tubes are a reasonable alternative to fundoplication and gastrostomy for neurologically impaired children with GER. The majority can be inserted without general anesthesia. This technique failed in only 8.3% patients, and they subsequently required fundoplication. A total of 14.5% of GJ patients showed some spontaneous improvement and had their feeding tube removed. Each approach, however, still is associated with a significant complication rate. A randomized prospective study comparing these 2 approaches is needed.

The cost of long term therapy for gastro-oesophageal reflux disease: a randomised trial comparing omeprazole and open antireflux surgery

BACKGROUND AND AIM

To comprehensively assess the relative merits of medical and surgical therapy for gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (GORD), health economic aspects have to be incorporated. We have studied the direct and indirect costs of medical and surgical therapy within the framework of a prospective randomised multicentre trial.

METHODS

After initial treatment of reflux oesophagitis with omeprazole to control symptoms and to heal oesophagitis, 154 patients were randomised to continue treatment with omeprazole (20 or 40 mg daily) and 144 patients to have an open antireflux operation (ARS). In case of GORD relapse, patients allocated to omeprazole were offered ARS and those initially operated on had either a reoperation or were treated with omeprazole. The costs were assessed over five years from randomisation.

RESULTS

Differences in cumulative direct medical costs per patient between the two therapeutic strategies diminished with time. However, five year direct medical costs per patient when given omeprazole were still significantly lower than for those having ARS in Denmark, Norway, and Sweden (differences were DKK 8703 (US$1475), NOK 32 992 (US$ 5155), and SEK 13 036 (US$ 1946), respectively). However, in Finland the reverse was true (the difference in favour of ARS amounted to FMK 7354 (US$ 1599)). When indirect costs (loss of production due to GORD related sick leave) were also included, the cost of surgical treatment increased substantially and exceeded the cost of medical treatment in all countries.

CONCLUSIONS

The total costs of medical therapy for chronic GORD were lower than those of open ARS when prospectively assessed over a five year period, although significant differences in cost estimates were revealed between countries.

What did the laparoscopic Nissen approach of the gastro-oesophageal reflux really change for the patients 8 years later?

BACKGROUND

Nissen fundoplication (NF) is recognized as the surgical treatment of the gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (GERD). NF can be achieved either by open surgery or by laparoscopic approach.

METHODS

From 1987 to 1997, 210 patients were treated for GERD by NF: 61 by open and 149 by laparoscopic approach. All the patients were followed more than 1 year and were scored by clinical assessment (Visick scale adaptation). In case of Visick score > 1, GI-endoscopy, X-ray series or 24-hour pH-study complete the evaluation.

RESULTS

The operative time was comparable between both groups. The postoperative recovery was statistically faster in the laparoscopic group (p = 0.0001). The mean time of follow-up was 6 years after open NF and 4 years after laparoscopic NF. After open NF or laparoscopic NF, 72% and 67% of the patients are respectively scored Visick 1, 13% and 21%--Visick 2, 6.8% and 6%--Visick 3 and 8.2% and 6%--Visick 4 (NS). Patients with recurrence of GERD were scored Visick 4, so failure of the surgical treatment is observed in 5 patients after open NF and 9 patients after laparoscopic NF. The occurrence of incisional hernia was significantly higher in the open group (p = 0.0001).

CONCLUSION

NF remains a safe procedure for surgical treatment of GERD and can be achieved by laparoscopic approach with comparable results to those by open laparotomy. In our experience, the advantages of the laparoscopic approach is a faster postoperative recovery and a lower risk of incisional hernia.

The economics of laparoscopic antireflux operations compared with open surgery

In Sweden laparoscopic antireflux surgery started in 1991, and within four years replaced the open procedure as the method of choice. It is, however, not yet settled which of the two techniques is most cost effective. To compare these two operations in economic terms we studied all reports up to September 1997 as well as the register in the epidemiological unit of the National Board of Health and Welfare (EpC). We found numerous reports on consecutive series of laparoscopic procedures, several non-randomised studies, and only one randomised prospective study comparing open and laparoscopic antireflux surgery. The few studies about the economics of antireflux surgery indicated that hospital costs were equal or less for the laparoscopic procedure. If one adds the costs from loss of production (sick leave) it will be an even more favourable outcome for the laparoscopic treatment. The figures from EpC showed that antireflux surgery is done infrequently in many surgical departments. This may have a substantial influence on the economic outcome as well as the effectiveness of antireflux surgery in Sweden. Few studies have compared open and laparoscopic methods from an economic perspective. As a tool for cost benefit analysis these reports are incomplete.

Current medical and surgical treatment options for gastroesophageal reflux disease

Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) is one of the most common disorders in medicine. The options of medical versus surgical therapies have been highlighted by more potent acid suppression medications and by the introduction of minimally invasive surgery for GERD. Many factors will impact on the treatment selection for each individual patient: the underlying pathophysiology, typical vs atypical symptoms, presence of reflux complications, and success and limitations of medical and surgical treatments. Medical antireflux therapy is very effective and safe, but long-term maintenance therapy is required for most patients. Minimally invasive antireflux surgery has provided excellent results, but outcome is dependent on patient selection and surgical expertise. Careful pre-operative evaluation is essential to determine the optimal treatment and surgical approach.

A cost-minimization analysis of alternative treatment strategies for achalasia

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study is to compare the costs per cure of alternative strategies for the treatment of achalasia.

METHODS

A cost-minimization model compared three strategies for otherwise healthy adults of any age with achalasia: 1) laparoscopic Heller myotomy with fundoplication (LHM); 2) pneumatic dilation (PD), with LHM reserved for treatment failures; 3) botulinum toxin (Botox) injection of the lower esophageal sphincter, with PD reserved for treatment failures. Probabilities of short- and long-term efficacy, treatment failure, symptomatic recurrence rates, and complications were derived from the published literature. Only direct costs were considered during the 5-yr time horizon.

RESULTS

Respective reference case costs per cure of PD, Botox, and LHM strategies were $3,111, $3,723, and $10,792. Despite short- and long-term efficacy of 96% and 94%, respectively, the LHM strategy was most costly. Initial PD remained less costly than initial Botox, provided that rates of PD efficacy and perforation were > or = 70% and < 9.5%, respectively, and cost of a Botox session was > or = $450. The results were not sensitive to the probabilities of short- and long-term response to Botox, recurrence after PD, LHM efficacy, and post-LHM gastroesophageal reflux disease, nor to the costs of LHM and PD.

CONCLUSIONS

For otherwise healthy patients with achalasia, initial PD is the least costly strategy provided that the PD perforation rate remains < 10%. Initial Botox is less costly only when nonendoscopic-related costs decrease by 25%. Initial LHM is the most costly strategy under all clinically plausible scenarios. Subsequent analyses should include a longer time horizon and an assessment of patient ference for each strategy.

[Laparoscopic surgery--evidence-based ?]

The literature has been searched for current results in laparoscopic cholecystectomy, hernia repair, appendectomy and fundoplication. This was performed as a systematic review. Laparoscopic cholecystectomy was judged to be safe and cost/effective, with good patient acceptability. However a need for further studies is indicated. Laparoscopic technique in hernia repair has a longer learning curve and is more expensive than open repair, with no major difference in recurrence rates. It is preferable in bilateral repairs. Laparoscopic appendectomy in the hands of experienced surgeons is cost/effective. Time to recovery is shorter and the rate of infectious complications is lower than in conventional procedures. There are still too few results reported from laparoscopic fundoplication to permit reliable conclusions.

Feasibility of 23-hour hospitalization after laparoscopic fundoplication

PURPOSE

In order to reduce the costs of laparoscopic fundoplication, a pilot program for outpatient surgery was instituted in 1995. The risks and benefits of reducing postoperative hospitalization to < or =23 hours were assessed.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Patients in ASA grade I or II (N = 22) with refractory gastroesophageal reflux disease underwent laparoscopic fundoplication over a 21-month period in a hospital-affiliated outpatient facility. The results were compared with those of a similar group of 16 patients whose surgery was performed on an inpatient basis.

RESULTS

Seventeen patients (77%) were discharged within 23 hours of surgery. The maximum length of stay was 3 days. There were no deaths. Nineteen patients (86%) reported excellent results. The average facility cost declined from $7,169 for the inpatient group to $4,588 for patients on operated under the outpatient protocol. The decrease resulted from a reduction in the cost of room, operating suite, supplies, and anesthesia.

CONCLUSION

Laparoscopic fundoplication can be performed safely in a hospital-affiliated outpatient setting, resulting in a significant reduction in procedure costs.

Current state, techniques, and results of laparoscopic antireflux surgery

The introduction of laparoscopic fundoplication has dramatically changed the face of antireflux surgery. Central to the success of laparoscopic fundoplication is careful preoperative patient evaluation and attention to surgical technique. Emerging evidence has questioned the long-term durability of laparoscopic partial fundoplications underscoring the place of laparoscopic Nissen fundoplication as the procedure of choice for most patients. The technique of laparoscopic Nissen fundoplication should incorporate crural closure, complete fundic mobilization by short gastric vessel division, and the creation of a short, loose fundoplication by enveloping the anterior and posterior fundic walls around the esophagus. Relief of typical reflux symptoms can be anticipated in over 90% of patients. The outcome of atypical reflux symptoms is less predictable, on average two thirds of patients benefiting. The cost of laparoscopic fundoplication compares favorably to long-term medical therapy and open fundoplication. Current trends indicate that laparoscopic fundoplication is being used increasingly as an alternative to long-term medical therapy.

Cost-effectiveness of laparoscopy in children

BACKGROUND

Laparoscopy may offer fast recovery and improved cosmesis, but its cost has been perceived as excessive.

OBJECTIVE

To analyze the total hospital costs of laparoscopy vs open surgery.

DESIGN

Retrospective cost-effectiveness analysis evaluating all cases performed in a 36-month period (September 1995 to August 1998). Cases were evaluated for operative time, itemized cost of supplies, and length of hospitalization.

SETTING

Operations performed by pediatric surgeons in a tertiary care children's hospital.

PATIENTS

Consecutive children undergoing laparoscopic or open appendectomies, cholecystectomies, fundoplications, and splenectomies. Patients were not randomized to laparoscopy, or open surgery.

INTERVENTIONS

Laparoscopic procedures performed with a core set of reusable equipment and a limited number of disposable instruments.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Cost surplus of laparoscopy was evaluated, and compared with savings associated with decreased hospital stay, to obtain cost-effectiveness of laparoscopy per procedure.

RESULTS

There were 26 laparoscopic and 359 open appendectomies; 33 laparoscopic and 3 open cholecystectomies; 16 laparoscopic and 18 open fundoplications; and 16 laparoscopic and 7 open splenectomies. Excess operating costs per procedure were $442.00 for appendectomy, $634.60 for fundoplication, $847.50 for cholecystectomy, and $1551.30 for splenectomy. Hospital stay was decreased for all laparoscopies, resulting in an overall savings per laparoscopic procedure of $2369.90 for appendectomy, $5390.90 for fundoplication, $1161.00 for cholecystectomy, and $858.90 for splenectomy.

CONCLUSIONS

Laparoscopy is cost-effective, particularly for fundoplication, appendectomy, and cholecystectomy. Detailing the costs of supplies, operating time, and length of stay allows interinstitutional comparison and critical cost-analysis of laparoscopy. With a more selective use of reusable instruments and further shortening of operative time, the global savings of laparoscopy may increase.

[Use of the harmonic scalpel (Ultracision) in laparoscopic antireflux surgery]

Gastroesophageal reflux disease can effectively be treated by laparoscopic fundoplication. A new multifunctional device has recently been introduced, Ultracision (UC), which can be expected to be especially effective in laparoscopy. Since 9/1995 laparoscopic fundoplication is being performed at our institution. We routinely divide the "short-gastric vessels" and have been using clip-appliers and Endo-GIAs before dividing the vessels with endo-scissors. Since 2/1997 we also use the UC, which applies ultrasonic energy to cause denaturing of proteins and subsequent hemostasis and dissection. This open, non-randomized study compares operative time, intra- and postoperative complications and conversion rates as well as costs of both methods. Between 2/1997 and 12/1997 20 consecutive patients received a floppy Nissen fundoplication by 2 surgeons. In 8 patients clips/EndoGIA were used (m:w = 5:3, mean age 52 years [33-69]), in 12 patients UC (m:W = 10:2, 53 years [25-74]) was used. 2 patients in each group had had previous open abdominal surgery. In the first group 2 procedures had to be converted to open surgery (1 bleeding, 1 anatomical problem), median operative time was 214 min (135-360). In the UC group all procedures were completed laparoscopically, median operative time 132 min (75-240). Postoperative major complication and mortality rates were 0 in both groups. Use of the harmonic scalpel reduced operative time and costs without increasing conversion rates and perioperative complications.

Comparison of costs between laparoscopic and open Nissen fundoplication: a prospective randomized study with a 3-month followup

BACKGROUND

Laparoscopic antireflux surgery has replaced conventional operation despite the fact that currently no randomized trials have been published regarding its cost effectiveness. The objective of the present study was to compare costs and some short-term outcomes of laparoscopic and open Nissen fundoplication.

STUDY DESIGN

Forty-two patients with documented gastroesophageal reflux disease were randomized between October 1995 and October 1996 to either laparoscopic (LNF) or open (ONF) Nissen fundoplication. Some short-term outcomes, Gastrointestinal Quality of Life Index (GIQLI) hospital costs, and costs to society were assessed. Followup was 3 months.

RESULTS

Medians of operation times in the LNF and ONF groups were 98 min and 74 min, respectively. Hospital stay was 2.5 days shorter after laparoscopic operation (LNF 3 days versus ONF 5.5 days). Both operations were equally safe and effective, but the LNF group experienced significantly less pain and fatigue during the first 3 postoperative weeks. Improvement in the GIQLI and overall patient satisfaction were comparable between the methods. Convalescence was faster in the LNF group: return to normal life being 14 versus 31 days and return to work being 21 versus 44 days in the LNF and ONF groups, respectively. Hospital costs were similar, $2,981 and $3,140 in the LNF and ONF groups, respectively, but total costs were lower ($7,506 versus $13,118) in the LNF group as a result of an earlier return to work.

CONCLUSIONS

LNF is superior in cost effectiveness, assuming that the longterm results between the methods are comparable.

Early laparoscopic Nissen fundoplication for recurrent reflux esophagitis: a cost-effective alternative to omeprazole

BACKGROUND

Eighty percent of patients treated medically for gastroesophageal reflux disease relapse after treatment. Many of these patients require indefinite treatment with omeprazole to prevent recurrence. Nissen fundoplication has been shown to be effective, safe and cost effective in the management of gastroesophageal reflux disease. We suggest a treatment algorithm, which encourages early surgical intervention in cases of recurrent esophagitis after a previously successful two-month course of omeprazole.

METHODS

We have offered laparoscopic Nissen fundoplication since 1993. Patients who received Nissen fundoplication since 1990 were asked to report return to baseline activity, medications, and lifestyle changes. Concurrent chart review of patients treated with omeprazole was conducted to analyze cost.

RESULTS

Patients receiving laparoscopic Nissen fundoplication were discharged significantly sooner and spent significantly less time convalescing when compared to those who underwent open Nissen fundoplication. Laparoscopic Nissen fundoplication became cost effective at 1.5 to 2 years when compared to omeprazole.

CONCLUSION

Based on cost analysis, patient satisfaction, acceptable complication rate, and efficient use of time and resources, we recommend laparoscopic Nissen fundoplication as the appropriate treatment in patients who develop recurrent esophagitis after a two-month treatment with omeprazole.

Laparoscopic or open fundoplication? A complete cost analysis

BACKGROUND

As part of a prospective observational trial, we set out to determine the direct and indirect costs of an open versus a laparoscopic fundoplication for chronic gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD).

METHODS

Two groups of patients, each comprising 28 subjects, were studied.

RESULTS

All patients received a functioning fundoplication that did not require any additional therapy. Because 19 and 12 patients in the open and laparoscopy groups, respectively, were employed in the work force, we were able to assess the costs due to loss of production. The mean operating time was similar for both groups, but postoperative stay differed significantly; though it amounted to 8 days for the open group, it was only 2 days for the laparoscopy group. Postoperative sick leave was 29.9 days in the open and 9.9 in the laparoscopy group (p < 0.05). The costs of the operations were 18,363 SEK for laparoscopy and 12,856 SEK for conventional fundoplication. On the other hand, the cost for hospital stay amounted to 35,488 SEK in the open group but was only 25,571 SEK for those undergoing laparoscopy. When we add outpatient visits, endoscopies, and other medical expenses, the total direct costs in the laparoscopy group come to 27,693 SEK, as compared to 37,482 SEK for the open fundoplication. The indirect medical costs, which were dominated by loss of production (36,732 versus 12,126 SEK), came to 37,126 and 12,595 SEK in the open and laparoscopy groups, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

The total community-based costs for the open and laparoscopic operations for chronic GERD amounted to 74,608 and 40,289 SEK, respectively. Thus, we would recommend the laparoscopic procedure in most cases.

Quality of life and antireflux medication use following laparoscopic Nissen fundoplication

With the advent of minimally invasive techniques, the surgical treatment of gastroesophageal reflux disease has received renewed interest. The efficacy of laparoscopic Nissen fundoplication in eliminating reflux has been documented. This study was undertaken to determine changes in quality of life and cost of antireflux medications after laparoscopic Nissen fundoplication. One hundred patients undergoing laparoscopic Nissen fundoplication between 1992 and 1997 completed questionnaires assessing changes in pre- and postoperative cost and number of antireflux medications, reflux symptoms, and quality of life. The average number of antireflux medications was significantly reduced (1.8 versus 0.3, P < 0.0001) as was the average monthly cost ($170 versus $30, P < 0.0001). Patients reported significant (P < 0.05) symptomatic improvement in postprandial heartburn, nocturnal heartburn, postprandial nausea, postprandial vomiting, dysphagia, and gas/bloating. Patients in this series noted fewer symptoms and used fewer antireflux medications at less cost after laparoscopic Nissen fundoplication. Symptoms commonly thought of as complications of fundoplication (vomiting, dysphagia, gas/bloating) were less common after fundoplication. This report documents the efficacy of laparoscopic fundoplication in improving quality of life and reducing use and cost of antireflux medications.

[How expensive is treatment of reflux disease?]

In a prospective documented series of reflux patients, a retroelective analysis of medication cost and duration of conservative therapy as well as the costs for surgical therapy including preoperative diagnostic workup, cost during hospitalization, and costs for complications with necessary additional treatment and readmissions is assessed. Cost-relevant factors are in conservative treatment cost-relevant factors are those patients who need increasing dosages, while in surgical treatment the cost-relevant patients are those with complications who need additional treatment.

Lifetime costs of surgical versus medical treatment of severe gastro-oesophageal reflux disease in Finland

BACKGROUND

Gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (GERD) can be effectively treated pharmacologically or surgically. As GERD is often a chronic condition, we compared the long-term costs of medical and surgical management.

METHODS

The medical regimens were ranitidine (150 or 300 mg/day), omeprazole (20 or 40 mg/day), and lansoprazole (30 mg/day), with costs calculated for total life expectancy after diagnosis and for one-third of that time. Costs for open or laparoscopic surgery (Nissen fundoplication) included pre- and post-operative investigations, sick leave, and calculated financial loss due to fatal outcome.

RESULTS

Costs were lowest with ranitidine, 150 mg/day, for one-third of the patient's lifetime and highest with lifelong omeprazole, 40 mg/daily. The cost of open or laparoscopic operation was less than that of lifelong daily treatment with proton pump inhibitors or ranitidine, 300 mg daily.

CONCLUSION

In Finland, antireflux surgery for GERD is cheaper than lifetime treatment with proton pump inhibitors.

Laparoscopic partial fundoplication vs laparoscopic Nissen-Rosetti fundoplication. Short-term results of 231 cases

BACKGROUND

Since 1992, all patients at our institution who have met standard accepted criteria for surgical intervention for complicated gastroesophageal reflux disease have been entered into a prospective sequential clinical study to evaluate outcomes of the laparoscopic approach to the Nissen-Rosetti procedure and a modified Toupet procedure.

METHODS

A standardized workup with upper GI series, esophagography, and endoscopy was used in all patients. Manometry, pH testing, and other special tests were used selectively. A measuring technique was used to determine wrap size without the use of dilators. The short gastric vessels were left intact in all patients. A cosurgeon approach was used, with technical factors described herein.

RESULTS

Some 226 of 231 cases were completed laparoscopically (98%)-125 patients in the Nissen-Rosetti group and 101 in the partial fundoplication group. There were no clinical failures in either group. The partial fundoplication group performed better than the Nissen-Rosetti group in all categories of comparison. Return to normal eating habits was much earlier in the partial wrap group (p < 0.0001). Postop distal esophageal sphincter pressures in the two groups were equal at 15 mmHg. Eight patients suffered significant dysphagia requiring endoscopy and dilatation, all in the Nissen-Rosetti group (p < 0.01). Minor complications occurred in 12% of the total group. There was a total surgical revision rate of 3%. There were no gastric or esophageal perforations. Average operative time was 30 min. Average hospital stay was 1.4 days. Hospital charges for the laparoscopic approach averaged $6,000 dollars compared to $12,000 for the open approach.

CONCLUSION

Laparoscopic partial fundoplication is as effective as laparoscopic Nissen-Rosetti fundoplication, with a higher satisfaction rate and fewer side effects. Measuring for wrap and hiatus size eliminates the need for and risk of using stiff dilators. By utilizing cosurgeons and currently available technology, cost, operative time, hospital time, and complications can be reduced to a finite minimum.

Epidural analgesia improves outcome following pediatric fundoplication. A retrospective analysis

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Nissen fundoplication is a common procedure in high-risk pediatric patients. This cohort study evaluated the influence of epidural versus intravenous opioid analgesia on the postoperative course of infants and children undergoing fundoplication.

METHODS

A retrospective review was made of the perioperative courses of 155 consecutive patients, aged 1 month to 19 years, who underwent elective open fundoplication from January 1993 to October 1994. Of these 155 patients, 72 received perioperative analgesia with epidural opioids, while 83 received parenteral opioids. Outcome variables included major morbidity factors, recovery of bowel and bladder function, and economic impact.

RESULTS

Patients in the epidural and parenteral groups did not differ with respect to age, weight, or associated preoperative medical diagnoses. The postoperative complication rate was significantly decreased in the epidural group (5.5% versus 20%) (P < .001). In the epidural group 4 patients required mechanical ventilation for longer than 24 hours, compared with 15 in the parenteral group. Patients in the epidural group were discharged earlier from the hospital and incurred approximately 20% less in hospital charges on average than their cohorts in the intravenous group.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that perioperative epidural analgesia, administered by a dedicated pain service, amy improve outcome in high-risk pediatric patients undergoing fundoplication.