Disturbed connexin43 gap junction distribution correlates with the location of reentrant circuits in the epicardial border zone of healing canine infarcts that cause ventricular tachycardia

BACKGROUND

Slow, nonuniform conduction caused by abnormal gap-junctional coupling of infarct-related myocardium is thought to be a component of the arrhythmogenic substrate. The hypothesis that changes in gap-junctional distribution in the epicardial border zone (EBZ) of healing canine infarcts define the locations of reentrant ventricular tachycardia (VT) circuits was tested by correlating activation maps of the surviving subepicardial myocardial layer with immunolocalization of the principal gap-junctional protein, connexin43 (Cx43).

METHODS AND RESULTS

The EBZ overlying 4-day-old anterior infarcts in three dogs with inducible VT and three noninducible dogs was mapped with a high-resolution electrode array and systematically examined by standard histology and confocal immunolocalization of Cx43. The thickness of the EBZ was significantly less in the hearts with (538 +/- 257 microns) than without (840 +/- 132 microns; P < .05) VT. At the interface with the underlying necrotic cells, the EBZ myocardium showed a marked disruption of gap-junctional distribution, with Cx43 labeling abnormally arrayed longitudinally along the lateral surfaces of the cells. In the EBZ of all hearts, the disrupted Cx43 labeling extended part of the way to the epicardial surface, with the most superficial epicardial myocytes having the normal transversely orientated pattern. Only in the hearts with inducible VT did the disorganization extend through the full thickness of the surviving layer at sites correlating with the location of the central common pathways of the figure-of-8 reentrant VT circuits.

CONCLUSIONS

Altered gap-junctional distribution is part of the early remodeling of myocardium after infarction, and by defining the location of the common central pathway of the reentrant VT circuits, it may be a determinant of VT susceptibility.

Rett syndrome astrocytes are abnormal and spread MeCP2 deficiency through gap junctions

MECP2, an X-linked gene encoding the epigenetic factor methyl-CpG-binding protein-2, is mutated in Rett syndrome (RTT) and aberrantly expressed in autism. Most children affected by RTT are heterozygous Mecp2-/+ females whose brain function is impaired postnatally due to MeCP2 deficiency. While prior functional investigations of MeCP2 have focused exclusively on neurons and have concluded the absence of MeCP2 in astrocytes, here we report that astrocytes express MeCP2, and MeCP2 deficiency in astrocytes causes significant abnormalities in BDNF regulation, cytokine production, and neuronal dendritic induction, effects that may contribute to abnormal neurodevelopment. In addition, we show that the MeCP2 deficiency state can progressively spread at least in part via gap junction communications between mosaic Mecp2-/+ astrocytes in a novel non-cell-autonomous mechanism. This mechanism may lead to the pronounced loss of MeCP2 observed selectively in astrocytes in mouse Mecp2-/+ brain, which is coincident with phenotypic regression characteristic of RTT. Our results suggest that astrocytes are viable therapeutic targets for RTT and perhaps regressive forms of autism.

Human immunodeficiency virus infection of human astrocytes disrupts blood-brain barrier integrity by a gap junction-dependent mechanism

HIV infection of the CNS is an early event after primary infection, resulting in neurological complications in a significant number of individuals despite antiretroviral therapy (ART). The main cells infected with HIV within the CNS are macrophages/microglia and a small fraction of astrocytes. The role of these few infected astrocytes in the pathogenesis of neuroAIDS has not been examined extensively. Here, we demonstrate that few HIV-infected astrocytes (4.7 ± 2.8% in vitro and 8.2 ± 3.9% in vivo) compromise blood-brain barrier (BBB) integrity. This BBB disruption is due to endothelial apoptosis, misguided astrocyte end feet, and dysregulation of lipoxygenase/cyclooxygenase, BK(Ca) channels, and ATP receptor activation within astrocytes. All of these alterations in BBB integrity induced by a few HIV-infected astrocytes were gap junction dependent, as blocking these channels protected the BBB from HIV-infected astrocyte-mediated compromise. We also demonstrated apoptosis in vivo of BBB cells in contact with infected astrocytes using brain tissue sections from simian immunodeficiency virus-infected macaques as a model of neuroAIDS, suggesting an important role for these few infected astrocytes in the CNS damage seen with HIV infection. Our findings describe a novel mechanism of bystander BBB toxicity mediated by low numbers of HIV-infected astrocytes and amplified by gap junctions. This mechanism of toxicity contributes to understanding how CNS damage is spread even in the current ART era and how minimal or controlled HIV infection still results in cognitive impairment in a large population of infected individuals.

Deletion of astrocyte connexins 43 and 30 leads to a dysmyelinating phenotype and hippocampal CA1 vacuolation

Astrocytes are coupled via gap junctions (GJs) comprising connexin 43 (Cx43) (Gja1) and Cx30 (Gjb6), which facilitate intercellular exchange of ions. Astrocyte connexins also form heterotypic GJs with oligodendrocytic somata and lamellae. Loss of oligodendrocyte gap junctions results in oligodendrocyte and myelin pathology. However, whether loss of astrocyte GJs affects oligodendrocytes and myelin is not known. To address this question, mice with astrocyte-targeted deletion of Cx43 and global loss of Cx30 [double knock-out (dKO)] were studied using Western blotting, immunohistochemistry, electron microscopy, and functional assays. Commencing around postnatal day 23 and persisting into old age, we found widespread pathology of white matter tracts comprising vacuolated oligodendrocytes and intramyelinic edema. In contrast, gray matter pathology was restricted to the CA1 region of the hippocampus, and consisted of edematous astrocytes. No differences were observed in synaptic density or total NeuN(+) cells in the hippocampus, or olig2(+) cells in the corpus callosum. However, in dKO mice, fewer CC1-positive mature oligodendrocytes were detected, and Western blotting indicated reduced myelin basic protein. Pathology was not noted in mice expressing a single allele of either Cx43 or Cx30. When compared with single connexin knock-outs, dKO mice were impaired in sensorimotor (rotarod, balance beam assays) and spatial memory tasks (object recognition assays). We conclude that loss of astrocytic GJs can result in white matter pathology that has functional consequences.

Biological role of connexin intercellular channels and hemichannels

Gap junctions (GJ) and hemichannels (HC) formed from the protein subunits called connexins are transmembrane conduits for the exchange of small molecules and ions. Connexins and another group of HC-forming proteins, pannexins comprise the two families of transmembrane proteins ubiquitously distributed in vertebrates. Most cell types express more than one connexin or pannexin. While connexin expression and channel activity may vary as a function of physiological and pathological states of the cell and tissue, only a few studies suggest the involvement of pannexin HC in acquired pathological conditions. Importantly, genetic mutations in connexin appear to interfere with GJ and HC function which results in several diseases. Thus connexins could serve as potential drug target for therapeutic intervention. Growing evidence suggests that diseases resulting from HC dysfunction might open a new direction for development of specific HC reagents. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the current studies of GJ and HC formed by connexins and pannexins in various tissue and organ systems including heart, central nervous system, kidney, mammary glands, ovary, testis, lens, retina, inner ear, bone, cartilage, lung and liver. In addition, present knowledge of the role of GJ and HC in cell cycle progression, carcinogenesis and stem cell development is also discussed.

Glial cell plasticity in sensory ganglia induced by nerve damage

Numerous studies have been done on the effect of nerve injury on neurons of sensory ganglia but little is known about the contribution of satellite glial cells (SCs) in these ganglia to post-injury events. We investigated cell-to-cell coupling and ultrastructure of SCs in mouse dorsal root ganglia after nerve injury (axotomy). Under control conditions SCs were mutually coupled, but mainly to other SCs around a given neuron. After axotomy SCs became extensively coupled to SCs that enveloped other neurons, apparently by gap junctions. Serial section electron microscopy showed that after axotomy SC sheaths enveloping neighboring neurons formed connections with each other. Such connections were absent in control ganglia. The number of gap junctions between SCs increased 6.5-fold after axotomy. We propose that axotomy induces growth of perineuronal SC sheaths, leading to contacts between SCs enveloping adjacent neurons and to formation of new gap junctions between SCs. These changes may be an important mode of glial plasticity and can contribute to neuropathic pain.

Upregulation in astrocytic connexin 43 gap junction levels may exacerbate generalized seizures in mesial temporal lobe epilepsy

Following brain injury, and during the process of neurodegeneration, a reactive astrocytic proliferation occurs. This is accompanied by an increase in the synthesis of neuropeptides, cytokines, growth factors and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), a cell-specific marker for reactive astrocytes. Astrocytes are extensively coupled by gap junctions of the Cx43 connexin subtype. Several studies have shown that in severe trauma, coupling between astrocytes may add to the spread of the damaged area. In this study we ask whether the astrocytosis which is a feature of other neurodegenerative diseases also occurs in mesial temporal lobe epilepsy (MTLE) and whether it is accompanied by an increase in astrocytic communication through an upregulation of Cx43 gap junction channel proteins. In order to examine the astrocytic response and the expression pattern of Cx43 protein, double immunohistochemical labeling studies were undertaken using antibodies against GFAP and Cx43 applied to human hippocampal tissue resected from patients with MTLE, and to normal human control hippocampal tissue. Immunofluorescent labeling of astrocytes and Cx43 was examined using confocal laser scanning microscopy. The images obtained were quantitatively analysed and reconstructed using three-dimensional volume rendering. The results of this study have established that not only is astrocytosis greater in MTLE-affected tissues than previously suggested, but it is accompanied by a highly significant increase in astrocytic Cx43 protein levels. We hypothesize that this surprisingly large upregulation in Cx43 may exacerbate generalized seizures in the progression of MTLE.

Genetic and physiological evidence that oligodendrocyte gap junctions contribute to spatial buffering of potassium released during neuronal activity

Mice lacking the K+ channel Kir4.1 or both connexin32 (Cx32) and Cx47 exhibit myelin-associated vacuoles, raising the possibility that oligodendrocytes, and the connexins they express, contribute to recycling the K+ evolved during neuronal activity. To study this possibility, we first examined the effect of neuronal activity on the appearance of vacuoles in mice lacking both Cx32 and Cx47. The size and number of myelin vacuoles was dramatically increased when axonal activity was increased, by either a natural stimulus (eye opening) or pharmacological treatment. Conversely, myelin vacuoles were dramatically reduced when axonal activity was suppressed. Second, we used genetic complementation to test for a relationship between the function of Kir4.1 and oligodendrocyte connexins. In a Cx32-null background, haploinsufficiency of either Cx47 or Kir4.1 did not affect myelin, but double heterozygotes developed vacuoles, consistent with the idea that oligodendrocyte connexins and Kir4.1 function in a common pathway. Together, these results implicate oligodendrocytes and their connexins as having critical roles in the buffering of K+ released during neuronal activity.

Connexin43 null mutation increases infarct size after stroke

Glial-neuronal interactions have been implicated in both normal information processing and neuroprotection. One pathway of cellular interactions involves gap junctional intercellular communication (GJIC). In astrocytes, gap junctions are composed primarily of the channel protein connexin43 (Cx43) and provide a substrate for formation of a functional syncytium implicated in the spatial buffering capacity of astrocytes. To study the function of gap junctions in the brain, we used heterozygous Cx43 null mice, which exhibit reduced Cx43 expression. Western blot analysis showed a reduction in the level of Cx43 protein and GJIC in astrocytes cultured from heterozygote mice. The level of Cx43 is reduced in the adult heterozygote cerebrum to 40% of that present in the wild-type. To assess the effect of reduced Cx43 and GJIC on neuroprotection, we examined brain infarct volume in wild-type and heterozygote mice after focal ischemia. In our model of focal stroke, the middle cerebral artery was occluded at two points, above and below the rhinal fissure. Four days after surgery, mice were killed, the brains were sectioned and analyzed. Cx43 heterozygous null mice exhibited a significantly larger infarct volume compared with wild-type (14.4 +/- 1.4 mm(3) vs. 7.7 +/- 0.82 mm(3), P < 0.002). These results suggest that augmentation of GJIC in astrocytes may contribute to neuroprotection after ischemic injury.

Matrix metalloproteinase-7 affects connexin-43 levels, electrical conduction, and survival after myocardial infarction

BACKGROUND

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) contribute to left ventricular remodeling after myocardial infarction (MI). Specific causative roles of particular MMPs, however, remain unclear. MMP-7 is abundant in cardiomyocytes and macrophages, but MMP-7 function after MI has not been defined.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Wild-type (WT; n=55) and MMP-7-null (MMP-7-/-; n=32) mice underwent permanent coronary artery ligation for 7 days. MI sizes were similar, but survival was greatly improved in MMP-7-/- mice. The survival difference could not be attributed to differences in left ventricular dilation because end-diastolic volumes increased similarly. ECG analysis revealed a prolonged PR interval in WT but not in MMP-7-/- post-MI mice. Post-MI conduction velocity, determined by optically mapping electrical wavefront propagation, decreased to 78+/-6% of control for WT and was normalized in MMP-7-/- mice. In WT mice, slower conduction velocity correlated with a 53% reduction in the gap junction protein connexin-43. Direct binding of MMP-7 to connexin-43, determined by surface plasmon resonance technology, occurred in a dose-dependent manner. Connexin-43 processing by MMP-7 was confirmed by in silico and in vitro substrate analyses and MMP-7 infusion induced arrhythmias in vivo.

CONCLUSIONS

MMP-7 deletion results in improved survival and myocardial conduction patterns after MI. This is the first report to implicate MMP-7 in post-MI remodeling and to demonstrate that connexin-43 is a novel MMP-7 substrate.

Contribution of gap junctional communication between tumor cells and astroglia to the invasion of the brain parenchyma by human glioblastomas

Background

Gliomas are "intraparenchymally metastatic" tumors, invading the brain in a non-destructive way that suggests cooperation between glioma cells and their environment. Recent studies using an engineered rodent C6 tumor cell line have pointed to mechanisms of invasion that involved gap junctional communication (GJC), with connexin 43 as a substrate. We explored whether this concept may have clinical relevance by analyzing the participation of GJC in human glioblastoma invasion.

Results

Three complementary in vitro assays were used: (i) seeding on collagen IV, to analyze homocellular interactions between tumor cells (ii) co-cultures with astrocytes, to study glioblastoma/astrocytes relationships and (iii) implantation into organotypic brain slice cultures, that mimic the three-dimensional parenchymal environment. Carbenoxolone, a potent blocker of GJC, inhibited cell migration in the two latter models. It paradoxically increased it in the first one. These results showed that homocellular interaction between tumor cells supports intercellular adhesion, whereas heterocellular glioblastoma/astrocytes interactions through functional GJC conversely support tumor cell migration. As demonstrated for the rodent cell line, connexin 43 may be responsible for this heterocellular functional coupling. Its levels of expression, high in astrocytes, correlated positively with invasiveness in biopsied tumors.

Conclusions

our results underscore the potential clinical relevance of the concept put forward by other authors based on experiments with a rodent cell line, that glioblastoma cells use astrocytes as a substrate for their migration by subverting communication through connexin 43-dependent gap junctions.

Altered patterns of cardiac intercellular junction distribution in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy

OBJECTIVE

To examine the distribution pattern of intercellular junctions (the mechanically coupling desmosomes and the electrically coupling gap junctions) in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) hearts showing myofibre disarray.

DESIGN

Samples from six necropsied hearts were studied, representing the interventricular septum and the free walls of the left and right ventricles. Immunohistochemical labelling of desmoplakin was used as a marker for desmosomes, and of connexin43 as a marker for gap junctions, in single and double stainings. The slides were examined by confocal laser scanning microscopy.

RESULTS

Marked disorganisation of intercalated discs was observed in areas featuring myofibre disarray. Besides overall derangement, localised abnormalities in desmosome organisation were evident, which included: (1) the formation of abnormally enlarged megadiscs; (2) the presence of intersecting disc structures; and (3) aberrant side to side desmosomal connections. Gap junctional abnormalities included: (1) random distribution of gap junctions over the surface of myocytes, rather than localisation to intercalated discs; (2) abundant side to side gap junction connections between adjacent myocytes; and (3) formation of abnormally shaped gap junctions. Circles of myocytes continuously interconnected by gap junctions were also observed. Regions of the diseased hearts lacking myofibre disarray, and control hearts of normal patients and patients with other cardiac diseases, did not show these alterations.

CONCLUSIONS

The disorganisation of the intercellular junctions associated with myofibre disarray in HCM may play an important role in the pathophysiological manifestations of the disease. The remodelling of gap junction distribution may underlie the formation of an arrhythmogenic substrate, thereby contributing to the generation and maintenance of cardiac arrhythmias associated with HCM.

Structural and molecular mechanisms of gap junction remodeling in epicardial border zone myocytes following myocardial infarction

Lateralization of the ventricular gap junction protein connexin 43 (Cx43) occurs in epicardial border zone myocytes following myocardial infarction (MI) and is arrhythmogenic. Alterations in Cx43 protein partners have been hypothesized to play a role in lateralization although mechanisms by which this occurs are unknown. To examine potential mechanisms we did nuclear magnetic resonance, yeast 2-hybrid, and surface plasmon resonance studies and found that the SH3 domain of the tyrosine kinase c-Src binds to the Cx43 scaffolding protein zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1) with a higher affinity than does Cx43. This suggests c-Src outcompetes Cx43 for binding to ZO-1, thus acting as a chaperone for ZO-1 and causing unhooking from Cx43. To determine whether c-Src/ZO-1 interactions affect Cx43 lateralization within the epicardial border zone, we performed Western blot, immunoprecipitation, and immunolocalization for active c-Src (p-cSrc) post-MI using a canine model of coronary occlusion. We found that post-MI p-cSrc interacts with ZO-1 as Cx43 begins to decrease its interaction with ZO-1 and undergo initial loss of intercalated disk localization. This indicates that the molecular mechanisms by which Cx43 is lost from the intercalated disk following MI includes an interaction of p-cSrc with ZO-1 and subsequent loss of scaffolding of Cx43 leaving Cx43 free to diffuse in myocyte membranes from areas of high Cx43, as at the intercalated disk, to regions of lower Cx43 content, the lateral myocyte membrane. Therefore shifts in Cx43 protein partners may underlie, in part, arrhythmogenesis in the post-MI heart.

Glial connexins and gap junctions in CNS inflammation and disease

Gap junctions facilitate direct cytoplasmic communication between neighboring cells, facilitating the transfer of small molecular weight molecules involved in cell signaling and metabolism. Gap junction channels are formed by the joining of two hemichannels from adjacent cells, each composed of six oligomeric protein subunits called connexins. Of paramount importance to CNS homeostasis are astrocyte networks formed by gap junctions, which play a critical role in maintaining the homeostatic regulation of extracellular pH, K+, and glutamate levels. Inflammation is a hallmark of several diseases afflicting the CNS. Within the past several years, the number of publications reporting effects of cytokines and pathogenic stimuli on glial gap junction communication has increased dramatically. The purpose of this review is to discuss recent observations characterizing the consequences of inflammatory stimuli on homocellular gap junction coupling in astrocytes and microglia as well as changes in connexin expression during various CNS inflammatory conditions.

Cell death in retinitis pigmentosa: gap junctions and the 'bystander' effect

Retinitis pigmentosa (RP) constitutes a group of genetically mediated, degenerative retinal diseases that display a broad range of phenotypes. There is appreciable heterogeneity in the pathogenetic mechanisms that underlie the various forms of RP, but a substantial percentage of the known cases arise as a consequence of mutations in rhodopsin or other rod-specific proteins. However, despite the fact that the genetic defect is expressed solely in the rod photoreceptors, otherwise healthy cone photoreceptors invariably die, resulting in severe visual impairment. In this paper, the author proposes a mechanism that may be responsible, at least in part, for this unfortunate circumstance. The basic premise of the hypothesis is that the spread of the disease from dying rods to genetically normal cones is a form of 'bystander' effect, mediated by the gap junctions that exist between these photoreceptor subtypes. On this view, agents that trigger the apoptotic process permeate the intercellular gap-junctional channels to carry the disease from rods to neighboring cones. If permeation of noxious substances through gap junctions is a significant factor in the non-cell-autonomous spread of photoreceptor degeneration, blocking transmission through these channels may provide a means for therapeutic intervention. Many substances are known to block gap-junctional communication, but if the rod-cone channel is to be targeted, it will be essential to identify the connexins that form the gap junctions between the two types of photoreceptor, and to develop drugs that selectively affect their junctional properties. Clearly, passage of toxic agents through gap junctions may not be the only form of cell-cell interaction by which dying rods could cause cone cell death, and in this brief account, the author considers other avenues that are currently being explored to explain this phenomenon.

Regulation of gap junction intercellular communication by connexin ubiquitination: physiological and pathophysiological implications

Gap junctions consist of arrays of intercellular channels that enable adjacent cells to communicate both electrically and metabolically. Gap junctions have a wide diversity of physiological functions, playing critical roles in both excitable and non-excitable tissues. Gap junction channels are formed by integral membrane proteins called connexins. Inherited or acquired alterations in connexins are associated with numerous diseases, including heart failure, neuropathologies, deafness, skin disorders, cataracts and cancer. Gap junctions are highly dynamic structures and by modulating the turnover rate of connexins, cells can rapidly alter the number of gap junction channels at the plasma membrane in response to extracellular or intracellular cues. Increasing evidence suggests that ubiquitination has important roles in the regulation of endoplasmic reticulum-associated degradation of connexins as well as in the modulation of gap junction endocytosis and post-endocytic sorting of connexins to lysosomes. In recent years, researchers have also started to provide insights into the physiological roles of connexin ubiquitination in specific tissue types. This review provides an overview of the advances made in understanding the roles of connexin ubiquitination in the regulation of gap junction intercellular communication and discusses the emerging physiological and pathophysiological implications of these processes.

Astrocytes in kindling: relevance to epileptogenesis

Astrogliosis is a prominent feature of epileptic foci, and may play a causal role in the development of seizures and the persistance of seizure disorders. We have studied morphological changes in astrocytes with respect to the evolution of seizures using the kindling model of epilepsy. Kindling-induced seizures result in a prominent hypertrophy of astrocytes that is accompanied by a reorganization of astrocytic cytoskeleton. The change in the morphology of astrocytes appears to be seizure-intensity dependent, occurs early in the kindling process, and persists for weeks following the last seizure. In addition to hypertrophy, we have observed an increase in proliferation of astrocytes in hippocampus, amygdala and piriform cortex, but no change in the expression of connexin-43 following kindling. Significantly, induction of a localized astrocyte hypertrophy prior to initiation of kindling does not result in seizures and does not facilitate kindling. Altogether these data suggest that 'gliosis' is an adaptive response to seizures.

Disruption of gap junctions in toxicity and carcinogenicity

Although the specific role of connexin-mediated gap junctional intercellular communication in the control of cell homeostasis, proliferation, and death are still not clear, several lines of evidence support these roles. The disturbance of this communication, through multiple mechanisms, may in the short term be a protective mechanism to limit the spread of toxicity in a tissue following chemical or radiation damage. However, sustained downregulation confers a loss of tumor-suppressive action. Consequently, connexin dysfunction has been associated with both the action of many carcinogens and being a feature of cancer per se. Connexins offer not only a target for cancer chemoprevention but also for exploitation in chemotherapy through the "bystander" effect.

Phosphatase-resistant gap junctions inhibit pathological remodeling and prevent arrhythmias

RATIONALE

Posttranslational phosphorylation of connexin43 (Cx43) has been proposed as a key regulatory event in normal cardiac gap junction expression and pathological gap junction remodeling. Nonetheless, the role of Cx43 phosphorylation in the context of the intact organism is poorly understood.

OBJECTIVE

To establish whether specific Cx43 phosphorylation events influence gap junction expression and pathological remodeling.

METHODS AND RESULTS

We generated Cx43 germline knock-in mice in which serines 325/328/330 were replaced with phosphomimetic glutamic acids (S3E) or nonphosphorylatable alanines (S3A). The S3E mice were resistant to acute and chronic pathological gap junction remodeling and displayed diminished susceptibility to the induction of ventricular arrhythmias. Conversely, the S3A mice showed deleterious effects on cardiac gap junction formation and function, developed electric remodeling, and were highly susceptible to inducible arrhythmias.

CONCLUSIONS

These data demonstrate a mechanistic link between posttranslational phosphorylation of Cx43 and gap junction formation, remodeling, and arrhythmic susceptibility.

Effective reduction of neuronal death by inhibiting gap junctional intercellular communication in a rodent model of global transient cerebral ischemia

Gap junctions assemble astrocytes into syncytia, allowing exchange of metabolites, catabolites, and second-messenger molecules. Connexin43 is the predominant connexin of astrocytic gap junctions. The distribution of gap junction protein connexin43 was analyzed in different subfields of the hippocampal formation as a function of time after transient forebrain ischemia. One decisive key step in understanding why an ischemic insult gradually expands may be to establish how gap junction channels permit dying cells in the ischemic focus to communicate, in particular, with viable cells. The role of gap junctional intercellular communication in the hippocampus under ischemic conditions could be decisive for cell death propagation. We found that the vulnerable CA1/CA2 subfields have a higher density of gap junctions than the resistant CA3/CA4 areas, that changes in the distribution of connexin43 immunoreactivity may correlate with the phenomenon of selective vulnerability, and that inhibition of astrocytic gap junction permeability by octanol restricts the flow of undesirable neurotoxins that could potentially exacerbate neuronal damage. This provides a novel perspective for analysis of the pathophysiology of cerebral ischemia.

Remodeling of gap junctional coupling in hypertrophied right ventricles of rats with monocrotaline-induced pulmonary hypertension

The present study investigates the remodeling of gap junctional organization in relation to changes in anisotropic conduction properties in hypertrophied right ventricles (RVs) of rats with monocrotaline (MCT)-induced pulmonary hypertension. In contrast to controls that showed immunolocalization of connexin43 (Cx43) labeling largely confined to the intercalated disks, RV myocytes from MCT-treated rats showed dispersion of Cx43 labeling over the entire cell surface. The disorganization of Cx43 labeling became more pronounced with the progression of hypertrophy. Desmoplakin remained localized to the intercalated disks, as in controls. In RV tissues, the proportion of Cx43 label at the intercalated disk progressively decreased. Quantitative analysis of en face views of intercalated disks revealed a significant decrease in the disk gap junctional density in RV tissues of MCT-treated rats (control, 0.18 versus MCT-treated, 0.14 at 2 weeks; control, 0.16 versus MCT-treated, 0.11 at 4 weeks). Conduction velocity in RVs parallel to the fiber orientation was significantly lower (30.2% [n=9]) in MCT-treated rats at 4 weeks than in control rats, whereas there was no significant difference observed in the conduction velocity across the fiber orientation between control and MCT-treated rats. The anisotropic ratio of MCT-treated rats (1.38+/-0.10) was significantly lower than that of control rats (1.98+/-0.12). These results suggest that RV hypertrophy induced by pressure overload is associated with both disorganization of gap junction distribution and alteration of anisotropic conduction properties.

Connexins: Synthesis, Post-Translational Modifications, and Trafficking in Health and Disease

Connexins are tetraspan transmembrane proteins that form gap junctions and facilitate direct intercellular communication, a critical feature for the development, function, and homeostasis of tissues and organs. In addition, a growing number of gap junction-independent functions are being ascribed to these proteins. The connexin gene family is under extensive regulation at the transcriptional and post-transcriptional level, and undergoes numerous modifications at the protein level, including phosphorylation, which ultimately affects their trafficking, stability, and function. Here, we summarize these key regulatory events, with emphasis on how these affect connexin multifunctionality in health and disease.

Gap junction remodeling and spironolactone-dependent reverse remodeling in the hypertrophied heart

Pressure overload is a common pathological insult to the heart and the resulting hypertrophy is an independent risk factor for sudden cardiac death. Gap junction remodeling (GJR) has been described in hypertrophied hearts; however, a detailed understanding of the remodeling process and its effects on impulse propagation is lacking. Moreover, there has been little progress developing therapeutic strategies to diminish GJR. Accordingly, transverse aortic banding (TAC) was performed in mice to determine the effects of progressive pathological hypertrophy on connexin (Cx)43 expression, posttranslational phosphorylation, gap junction assembly, and impulse propagation. Within 2 weeks after TAC, total and phospho-Cx43 abundance was reduced and incorporation of Cx43 into gap junctional plaques was markedly diminished. These molecular changes were associated with progressive slowing of impulse propagation, as determined by optical mapping with voltage-sensitive dyes. Treatment with the aldosterone receptor antagonist spironolactone, which has been shown to diminish sudden arrhythmic death in clinical trials, was examined for its effects on GJR. We found that spironolactone blunted the development of GJR and also potently reversed established GJR, both at the molecular and functional levels, without diminishing the extent of hypertrophy. These data suggest a potential mechanism for some of the salutary electrophysiological and clinical effects of mineralocorticoid antagonists in myopathic hearts.

Functional gap junctions facilitate melanoma antigen transfer and cross-presentation between human dendritic cells

Previously, we found that human dendritic cells (hDCs) pulsed with a melanoma cell lysate (MCL) and stimulated with TNF-alpha (MCL/TNF) acquire a mature phenotype in vitro and are able to trigger tumor-specific immune responses when they are used in melanoma immunotherapy in patients. In this study, we describe that MCL/TNF induces gap junction (GJ)-mediated intercellular communications and promotes melanoma Ag transfer between ex vivo produced hDCs from melanoma patients. hDCs also exhibit increased expression of the GJ-related protein connexin 43, which contributes to GJ plaque formation after MCL/TNF stimulation. The addition of GJ inhibitors suppresses intercellular tumor Ag transfer between hDCs, thus reducing melanoma-specific T cell activation. In summary, we demonstrate that MCL/TNF-stimulated hDCs can establish functional GJ channels that participate in melanoma Ag transfer, facilitating Ag cross-presentation and an effective dendritic cell-mediated melanoma-specific T cell response. These results suggest that GJs formed between hDCs used in cancer vaccination protocols could be essentials for the establishment of a more efficient antitumor response.

Chronic hemodynamic overload of the atria is an important factor for gap junction remodeling in human and rat hearts

OBJECTIVES

The expression and distribution of connexins is abnormal in a number of cardiac diseases, including atrial fibrillation, and is believed to favor conduction slowing and arrhythmia. Here, we studied the role of atrial structural remodeling in the disorganization of gap junctions and whether redistributed connexins can form new functional junction channels.

METHODS

Expression of connexin-43 (Cx43) was characterized by immunoblotting and immunohistochemistry in human right atrial specimens and in rat atria after myocardial infarction (MI). Gap junctions were studied by electron and 3-D microscopy, and myocyte-myocyte coupling was determined by Lucifer yellow dye transfer.

RESULTS

In both chronically hemodynamically overloaded human atria in sinus rhythm and in dilated atria from MI-rats, Cx43 were dephosphorylated and redistributed from the intercalated disc to the lateral cell membranes as observed during atrial fibrillation. In MI-rats, the gap junctions at the intercalated disc were smaller (20% decrease) and contained very little Cx43 (0 or 1 gold particle vs. 42 to 98 in sham-operated rats). In the lateral membranes of myocytes, numerous connexon aggregates comprising non-phosphorylated Cx43 were observed. These connexon aggregates were in no case assembled into gap junction plaque-like structures. However, N-cadherin was well organized in the intercalated disc. There was very little myocyte-myocyte coupling in MI-rat atria and no myocyte-fibroblast coupling. Regression of the atrial remodeling was associated with the normalization of Cx43 localization.

CONCLUSION

Structural alteration of the atrial myocardium is an important factor in the disorganization of connexins and gap junction. Moreover, redistributed Cx43 do not form junction channels.