Improved glycemic control in mice lacking Sglt1 and Sglt2

Sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) is the major, and SGLT1 the minor, transporter responsible for renal glucose reabsorption. Increasing urinary glucose excretion (UGE) by selectively inhibiting SGLT2 improves glycemic control in diabetic patients. We generated Sglt1 and Sglt2 knockout (KO) mice, Sglt1/Sglt2 double-KO (DKO) mice, and wild-type (WT) littermates to study their relative glycemic control and to determine contributions of SGLT1 and SGLT2 to UGE. Relative to WTs, Sglt2 KOs had improved oral glucose tolerance and were resistant to streptozotocin-induced diabetes. Sglt1 KOs fed glucose-free high-fat diet (G-free HFD) had improved oral glucose tolerance accompanied by delayed intestinal glucose absorption and increased circulating glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), but had normal intraperitoneal glucose tolerance. On G-free HFD, Sglt2 KOs had 30%, Sglt1 KOs 2%, and WTs <1% of the UGE of DKOs. Consistent with their increased UGE, DKOs had lower fasting blood glucose and improved intraperitoneal glucose tolerance than Sglt2 KOs. In conclusion, 1) Sglt2 is the major renal glucose transporter, but Sglt1 reabsorbs 70% of filtered glucose if Sglt2 is absent; 2) mice lacking Sglt2 display improved glucose tolerance despite UGE that is 30% of maximum; 3) Sglt1 KO mice respond to oral glucose with increased circulating GLP-1; and 4) DKO mice have improved glycemic control over mice lacking Sglt2 alone. These data suggest that, in patients with type 2 diabetes, combining pharmacological SGLT2 inhibition with complete renal and/or partial intestinal SGLT1 inhibition may improve glycemic control over that achieved by SGLT2 inhibition alone.

Diuretic Effects of Sodium Glucose Cotransporter 2 Inhibitors and Their Influence on the Renin-Angiotensin System

The renin-angiotensin system (RAS) plays an important role in regulating body fluids and blood pressure. However, inappropriate activation of the RAS contributes to the pathogenesis of cardiovascular and renal diseases. Recently, sodium glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors have been used as anti-diabetic agents. SGLT2 inhibitors induce glycosuria and improve hyperglycemia by inhibiting urinary reabsorption of glucose. However, in the early stages of treatment, these inhibitors frequently cause polyuria and natriuresis, which potentially activate the RAS. Nevertheless, the effects of SGLT2 inhibitors on RAS activity are not straightforward. Available data indicate that treatment with SGLT2 inhibitors transiently activates the systemic RAS in type 2 diabetic patients, but not the intrarenal RAS. In this review article, we summarize current evidence of the diuretic effects of SGLT2 inhibitors and their influence on RAS activity.

A new mouse model of spontaneous diabetes derived from ddY strain

By the selective breeding of obese male mice of the ddY strain and using indices of the heavy body weight and appearance of urinary glucose, we established two inbred strains in 1992: one with obesity and urinary glucose (Tsumura, Suzuki, Obese Diabetes: TSOD) and the other without them (Tsumura, Suzuki, Non Obesity: TSNO). The male TSOD mice constantly showed signs of obesity and urinary glucose with increases in food and water intake, body weight and some fat weight. The body mass index (BMI) clearly showed moderate obesity. Increases in the levels of diabetic blood parameters (glucose, insulin and lipids) were also found in males, in which the levels of blood glucose and insulin were high to the ages past the growth peak. In the histological studies, pancreatic islets of the TSOD males were found hypertrophic without any signs of insulitis or fibrous formation. Among these diabetic characteristics, some of which were similar to the reported models of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM), the stable appearances of the hyperglycemia, the hyperinsulinemia and the hypertrophy of pancreatic islets to the ages past the growth peak were the prominent features. In these respect the TSOD mouse may be a useful model for researching the mechanisms of human diabetes and its complications.

A low renal threshold for glucose in diabetic patients with a mutation in the hepatocyte nuclear factor-1alpha (HNF-1alpha) gene

One form of maturity-onset diabetes of the young, Type 3 (MODY3), results from mutations in the gene coding for hepatocyte nuclear factor-1alpha (HNF-1alpha), a transcription factor first described in the liver. MODY3 is characterized by a defective glucose-stimulated insulin secretion. Earlier observations of glycosuria with normal blood glucose levels in some MODY families suggest an additional renal manifestation of the respective genetic defect. We measured the renal threshold for glucose in five diabetic carriers of a missense mutation (Arg 272 His) in HNF-1alpha and, for comparison, in eight Type 1 diabetic patients, applying a non-invasive protocol of frequent parallel blood and urine sampling during a slow shift in blood glucose levels. We found that the mean renal threshold for glucose was lowered in the HNF-1alpha diabetic patients compared to those with Type 1 diabetes (6.5 +/- 0.9 mmol l(-1) vs 10.7 +/- 0.5 mmol l(-1); p < 0.01). This lowered glucose threshold might be an indication of an extra-pancreatic effect of HNF-1alpha gene mutations in humans. Defects in HNF-1alpha may lead to an altered tubular glucose reabsorption, possibly due to decreased expression of the renal glucose transporter proteins involved in reabsorption of glucose from the urine.

Nonobese diabetic (NOD) mice congenic for a targeted deletion of 12/15-lipoxygenase are protected from autoimmune diabetes

OBJECTIVE

12/15-lipoxygenase (12/15-LO), one of a family of fatty acid oxidoreductase enzymes, reacts with polyenoic fatty acids to produce proinflammatory lipids. 12/15-LO is expressed in macrophages and pancreatic beta-cells. It enhances interleukin 12 production by macrophages, and several of its products induce apoptosis of beta-cells at nanomolar concentrations in vitro. We had previously demonstrated a role for 12/15-LO in beta-cell damage in the streptozotocin model of diabetes. Since the gene encoding 12/15-LO (gene designation Alox15) lies within the Idd4 diabetes susceptibility interval in NOD mice, we hypothesized that 12/15-LO is also a key regulator of diabetes susceptibility in the NOD mouse.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

We developed NOD mice carrying an inactivated 12/15-LO locus (NOD-Alox15(null)) using a "speed congenic" protocol, and the mice were monitored for development of insulitis and diabetes.

RESULTS

NOD mice deficient in 12/15-LO develop diabetes at a markedly reduced rate compared with NOD mice (2.5 vs. >60% in females by 30 weeks). Nondiabetic female NOD-Alox15(null) mice demonstrate improved glucose tolerance, as well as significantly reduced severity of insulitis and improved beta-cell mass, when compared with age-matched nondiabetic NOD females. Disease resistance is associated with decreased numbers of islet-infiltrating activated macrophages at 4 weeks of age in NOD-Alox15(null) mice, preceding the development of insulitis. Subsequently, islet-associated infiltrates are characterized by decreased numbers of CD4(+) T cells and increased Foxp3(+) cells.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest an important role for 12/15-LO in conferring susceptibility to autoimmune diabetes in NOD mice through its effects on macrophage recruitment or activation.

Beta-cell dysfunction, insulin sensitivity, and glycosuria precede diabetes in hepatocyte nuclear factor-1alpha mutation carriers

OBJECTIVE

Patients with diabetes due to hepatocyte nuclear factor (HNF)-1alpha mutations have beta-cell deficiency, insulin sensitivity, altered proinsulin levels, and a low renal threshold for glucose. It is uncertain how many of these features precede the development of diabetes. The aim of our study was to test for these characteristics in young nondiabetic HNF-1alpha mutation carriers.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

A total of 47 offspring from 19 extended families underwent genetic testing, a standard oral glucose tolerance test, and urine testing.

RESULTS

HNF-1alpha mutations were found in 20 offspring, 7 with diabetes and 13 without diabetes. The 13 nondiabetic mutation carriers were compared with 27 family control subjects, who were matched for age, sex, and BMI. There was marked beta-cell deficiency with reduced insulinogenic index (53.5 [31.5-90.9] vs. 226.0 [126.0-407.1], SD [range], P < 0.001) and area under the curve for insulin (P < 0.001). Insulin sensitivity was increased in mutation carriers (homeostatic model assessment of insulin sensitivity 144.6 [82.7-252.7] vs. 100 [66.9-149.4], P = 0.025). A total of 38% of mutation carriers had glycosuria at 2 h compared with 0% of control subjects (P = 0.0034). Those with glycosuria had peak glucose values that were higher than the mutations carriers without glycosuria (range 8.1-11.8 vs. 6.2-8.4 mmol/l, P = 0.002). The seven subjects with diabetes all showed glycosuria.

CONCLUSIONS

We conclude that marked beta-cell deficiency, increased insulin sensitivity, and a low renal threshold are present in young nondiabetic HNF-1alpha mutation carriers. The presence of glycosuria post-glucose load could be used to screen children of mutation carriers as it occurs in all mutation carriers with a peak glucose in the oral glucose tolerance test >8.4 mmol/l.

Development of autoimmune diabetes in glutamic acid decarboxylase 65 (GAD65) knockout NOD mice

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS

Type 1 diabetes mellitus, a T-cell-mediated autoimmune disease, results from the selective destruction of insulin-producing pancreatic beta cells. Autoantibodies against beta-cell components are used clinically as sensitive markers of this disease; however, their physiological role has not been clear. To investigate the role of glutamic acid decarboxylase 65 (GAD65) in the development of the Type 1 diabetes of non-obese diabetic (NOD) mice, we analysed and characterised NOD mice with targeted disruption of the GAD65 gene.

METHODS

GAD65-deficient mice were previously established. After backcrossing the knockout mutation onto the NOD genetic background for up to eight generations, female littermates of the three resulting genotypes were produced by intercrossing: GAD65 +/+ (n=23), GAD65 +/- (n=62), and GAD65 -/- (n=31).

RESULTS

The cumulative incidence of autoimmune diabetes showed no significant difference among the three groups in longitudinal studies using the Kaplan-Meier method. Islet morphology showed that the progression of islet infiltration did not differ significantly between the three groups.

CONCLUSION/INTERPRETATION

The cumulative incidence of autoimmune diabetes was not influenced by the GAD65 deficiency. These data suggest that GAD65 is not a major regulatory target of beta-cell autoimmunity in NOD mice.

Atypical diabetes associated with inclusion formation in the R6/2 mouse model of Huntington's disease is not improved by treatment with hypoglycaemic agents

The R6/2 transgenic mouse model of Huntington's disease (HD) develops a progressive neurological phenotype that involves severe motor and cognitive dysfunctions. Although not a cardinal sign, diabetes has been described in R6/2 mice. It is not clear, however, whether the diabetes contributes to the HD-like phenotype of R6/2 mice. In our study we found that the severity of diabetes in R6/2 mice was associated with the progressive formation of ubiquinated inclusions in pancreatic beta cells. Diabetes is dissociated from early motor and cognitive dysfunctions and did not correlate with motor impairment and survival of R6/2 mice. However, chronic behavioural testing (at a level higher than that which is reported to improve several aspects of the R6/2 phenotype) exacerbated the onset of diabetes. Pharmacological treatment of the diabetes was attempted using two oral hypoglycaemic agents commonly used by diabetics. The mice responded acutely to glibenclamide (which induces exocytosis of insulin) but not to rosiglitazone (which induces sensitization to insulin). This supports the suggestion that the diabetes in R6/2 mice is caused by an impairment in insulin release rather than insulin insensitivity. However, chronic treatment with these hypoglycaemic agents had no effect on either the course of the diabetes or the disease in R6/2 mice.

Mutation in the Monocarboxylate Transporter 12 Gene Affects Guanidinoacetate Excretion but Does Not Cause Glucosuria

A heterozygous mutation (c.643C>A; p.Q215X) in the monocarboxylate transporter 12-encoding gene MCT12 (also known as SLC16A12) that mediates creatine transport was recently identified as the cause of a syndrome with juvenile cataracts, microcornea, and glucosuria in a single family. Whereas the MCT12 mutation cosegregated with the eye phenotype, poor correlation with the glucosuria phenotype did not support a pathogenic role of the mutation in the kidney. Here, we examined MCT12 in the kidney and found that it resides on basolateral membranes of proximal tubules. Patients with MCT12 mutation exhibited reduced plasma levels and increased fractional excretion of guanidinoacetate, but normal creatine levels, suggesting that MCT12 may function as a guanidinoacetate transporter in vivo However, functional studies in Xenopus oocytes revealed that MCT12 transports creatine but not its precursor, guanidinoacetate. Genetic analysis revealed a separate, undescribed heterozygous mutation (c.265G>A; p.A89T) in the sodium/glucose cotransporter 2-encoding gene SGLT2 (also known as SLC5A2) in the family that segregated with the renal glucosuria phenotype. When overexpressed in HEK293 cells, the mutant SGLT2 transporter did not efficiently translocate to the plasma membrane, and displayed greatly reduced transport activity. In summary, our data indicate that MCT12 functions as a basolateral exit pathway for creatine in the proximal tubule. Heterozygous mutation of MCT12 affects systemic levels and renal handling of guanidinoacetate, possibly through an indirect mechanism. Furthermore, our data reveal a digenic syndrome in the index family, with simultaneous MCT12 and SGLT2 mutation. Thus, glucosuria is not part of the MCT12 mutation syndrome.

Absence of ClC5 in knockout mice leads to glycosuria, impaired renal glucose handling and low proximal tubule GLUT2 protein expression

Glycosuria is one of the well-documented characteristics in ClC-5 knockout (KO) mice and patients with Dent's disease. However, the underlying pathophysiology of its occurrence is unknown. In this study, we have compared ClC-5 KO mice with age and gender matched wild-type (WT) control mice to investigate if the underlying cause of manifested glycosuria is an impairment of glucose homeostasis and/or an alteration in expression levels of proximal tubule (PT) glucose transporters. We observed that, the blood glucose concentration (n=12, p<0.01) and the fractional excretion of glucose and insulin (n=6, p<0.05) were higher in KO mice. In contrast, the fasting blood glucose levels (n=7) were not significantly different in the two groups. Plasma glucose increased to a greater extent in KO mice (n=7, p<0.05) when challenged by an intraperitoneal injection of glucose. However, no peripheral tissue insulin resistance was observed following an intraperitoneal injection of insulin (n=9) in the KO mice. ELISA analysis demonstrated low plasma insulin concentrations after a 12 hour fasting period and also following glucose injection in KO mice. The total insulin released during a 2 hour period following glucose challenge was significantly lower in KO mice (n=6, p<0.05). By western blot, we observed a significant decrease in GLUT2 protein expression levels in isolated PT ((n=10, p<0.01)) of KO mice. This decrease in protein levels was corroborated by a significant decrease in GLUT2 mRNA levels estimated semi quantitatively by RT-PCR in isolated PT (n=10, p<0.01). No significant changes in mRNA expression levels of SGLT2, SGLT1 and GLUT1, as analyzed by RT-PCR, could be detected in the isolated PT (n=10). Also, we have shown by western blot analysis that expression of megalin is lower in the renal cortex of KO mice when compared to WT mice (n=3, p<0.05). Our results suggest that low plasma insulin concentration together with renal function changes observed in KO mice significantly contribute towards the glucose intolerance and documented glycosuria observed in this animal.

Genomic structure of human lysosomal glycosylasparaginase

The gene structure of the human lysosomal enzyme glycosylasparaginase was determined. The gene spans 13 kb and consists of 9 exons. Both 5' and 3' untranslated regions of the gene are uninterrupted by introns. A number of transcriptional elements were identified in the 5' upstream sequence that includes two putative CAAT boxes followed by TATA-like sequences together with two AP-2 binding sites and one for Spl. A 100 bp CpG island and several ETF binding sites were also found. Additional AP-2 and Sp1 binding sites are present in the first intron. Two polyadenylation sites are present and appear to be functional. The major known glycosylasparaginase gene defect G488----C, which causes the lysosomal storage disease aspartylglycosaminuria (AGU) in Finland, is located in exon 4. Exon 5 encodes the post-translational cleavage site for the formation of the mature alpha/beta subunits of the enzyme as well as a recently proposed active site threonine, Thr206.

X-linked skeletal dysplasia with mental retardation

A syndrome compatible with an X-linked trait is described, affecting four male cousins in three sibships. The body had skeletal anomalies, including short stature, ridging of the metopic suture, fusion of cervical vertebrae, thoracic hemivertebrae, scoliosis, sarcral hypoplasia and short middle phalanges. In addition, they had moderate developmental retardation, and abducens palsies. Three of the four had glucose intolerance, and one was born with an imperforate anus. Of five female obligate carriers studied, three had fusion of cervical vertebrae, three had some shortening of the middle phalanges and three had glucose intolerance. The syndrome in this family was compared to previously reported syndromes, and the conclusion was reached that it represents a previously unreported X-linked syndrome with minor manifestations in carrier females.

Glycosuria and insulitis in NOD mice expressing the HLA-DQw6 molecule

To investigate HLA-linked genes controlling the susceptibility and resistance to insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM), HLA-DQ alleles of 45 Japanese patients with IDDM were analysed, using sequence specific oligonucleotide (SSO). DQA1*0301 and DQB1*04 were positively associated (R.R = 6.6, Pc less than 0.05 and R.R. = 4.7 Pc less than 0.01) and DQA1*0103 and DQB1*0104 were negatively associated (R.R. = 0.2, Pc less than 0.01) with IDDM. DQA1*0103 and DQB1*0104 were in strong linkage disequilibrium to encode for DQw6 molecule. Therefore, in a Japanese population, the DQw6 molecule seems to control the resistance to IDDM. To determine whether or not the DQw6 molecule itself can protect against glycosuria and insulitis in NOD mice, these animals were mated with HLA-DQw6 transgenic-C57BL/6 mice (DQw6-B6) and the F1 progeny expressing the DQw6 molecule were backcrossed with NOD mice. Eighty-five female backcross progenies were classified into four groups, according to the MHC classII phenotype; I-ANOD/I-ANOD DQw6(-), I-ANOD/I-ANOD DQw6(+), I-ANOD/I-Ab DQw6(-) and I-ANOD/I-Ab DQw6(+). At the age of 16 weeks, 9.1% of the DQw6(-) I-Ab(-) mice had a glycosuria whereas none of the DQw6(+) I-Ab(-) mice had a glycosuria. At the age of 30 weeks 13.6% of the DQw6(-) I-Ab(-) mice had a glycosuria and 7.7% of the DQw6(+) I-Ab(-) mice had a glycosuria. Histological examinations of the pancreas were performed in the 30 week old mice or after the development of glycosuria.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Improved metabolic disorders of insulin receptor-deficient mice by transgenic overexpression of glucokinase in the liver

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS

Insulin receptor null mutant mice develop severe diabetes, ketoacidosis and liver steatosis and die within 1 week after birth. Since the liver plays an essential role in the control of glucose homeostasis, we examined in this work whether the metabolic disorders of insulin receptor-deficient mice could be improved upon restoration of hepatic glucose metabolism by transgenic constitutive overexpression of glucokinase selectively in the liver.

METHODS

We first generated transgenic mice overexpressing rat glucokinase cDNA under control of the liver-specific phenylalanine hydroxylase gene promoter. These transgenic mice were crossed with heterozygous insulin-receptor-null mutants to produce homozygous insulin-receptor-null mice overexpressing glucokinase in the liver.

RESULTS

The transgenic mice overexpressing glucokinase in the liver showed improved glucose tolerance and were mildly hypoglycaemic and hyperlipidaemic under starved conditions. The introduction of the glucokinase transgene in insulin receptor null mice did not prevent the development of glycosuria. However, ketoacidosis was delayed by more than 1 week and survival was prolonged to 10 to 16 days in 16% of the pups. In these longer surviving pups, serum glucose and triglyceride concentrations were lowered, hepatic glycogen stores were reconstituted and liver steatosis was absent as compared with the pups which had developed strong ketoacidosis and died earlier.

CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION

These results show that overexpression of hepatic glucokinase can compensate, in part, for the metabolic disorders developed by insulin receptor-deficient mice. This shows the importance of improving hepatic function in diabetes and must revive interest in enhancement of glucokinase activity as a therapeutic strategy for the treatment of diabetes.

Deletion of exon 8 causes glycosylasparaginase deficiency in an African American aspartylglucosaminuria (AGU) patient

We have indentified a GT-to-TT transversion at the splice donor site of intron 8 in the glycosylasparaginase gene from an African American aspartylglucosaminuria (AGU) patient. This mutation causes abnormal splicing of glycosylasparaginase pre-mRNA by joining exon 7 to 9 and excluding 134 bp exon 8. The effect of the mutation is compounded by a frame shift that occurs after the deletion site resulting in premature translational termination. The truncated AGU protein was neither catalytically active nor processed into mature alpha and beta subunits. Both this and a previously characterized Finnish AGU mutation appear to affect folding of the single-chain precursor of glycosylasparaginase and thereby prevent transport of the enzyme to lysosomes.

Time-based investigation of urinary metabolic markers for Type 2 diabetes: Metabolomics approach for diabetes management

Diabetes is considered one of the most important health emergencies worldwide and Egypt has 8.2 million diabetic patients according to the International Diabetes Federation report in 2017. The objective of this study was to monitor the time-course variation in the metabolic profile of diabetic rats to detect urinary metabolic biomarkers using the metabolomics approach. Type 2 diabetes was induced in male Wistar albino rats using a single intraperitoneal injection of 40 mg/kg of streptozotocin following oral administration of 10% fructose in drinking water for 3 weeks. Then, urine was collected for 24 h from rats at three time points (0, 2, and 4 weeks after confirmation of diabetes), and were analyzed by nuclear magnetic resonance (H¹ -NMR), followed by multivariate data analysis. The results from H¹ -NMR pointed out that d-glucose, taurine, l-carnitine, l-fucose, 1,5-anhydrosorbitol, and d-galactose levels showed consistent significant variation (p < 0.05) between the positive (diabetic) and negative (normal) controls during the whole experimental period. Also, with the disease progression, myoinositol, and l-phenylalanine levels were significantly altered (p < 0.05) after 2 weeks and this alteration was maintained till the end of the 4-week experimental period in the positive control group. From the results of the present study, it could be concluded that we cannot depend only on glucose levels for prognostic purposes since there are other metabolic disturbances in diabetes which need to be tracked for better disease prognosis.

The inheritance of glucosuria in the KK and A y mouse

Both the KK and the Ay mouse exhibit many symptoms of diabetes. Glucosuria is the most satisfactory test for this condition in mice. Glucosuria is inherited as a dominant in both strains, but many factors reduce its penetrance. The penetrance in the KK strain can be increased from 23 to 62% by crossing to C57BL/10J and then selecting the most effective background modifiers. The number of modifiers must be small because response was rapid and fixation fast. The cross KK × Ay gives yellow and black offspring in equal numbers. The yellows have the dominant genes for glucosuria from both strains, and the males all become glucosuric by the time they are 8 months old, in comparison to 7% of the males in the parental yellow strain. Of the yellow females, 88% are glucosuric by 1 year in comparion to 0% of the yellow strain or 2% of the KK's. The black males which lack the gene from the Ay strain but do have the gene from the KK have no glucosurics at 8 months and only 2% at 1 year. The F1 of the cross KK × Ay provides valuable research material since all yellow males will become glucosuric by 8 months of age and none of their black litter mates will.

Genetic testing for maturity onset diabetes of the young in childhood hyperglycaemia

Mild hyperglycaemia is a common finding during minor illness in children. The differential diagnosis includes maturity onset diabetes of the young (MODY), which can be a difficult diagnosis to make clinically. As most genes resulting in MODY have been identified, it is possible to make a firm diagnosis using mutation detection. A case is reported of a 4 year old girl in whom a diagnosis of MODY2 was established by the finding of a heterozygous missense mutation in exon 7 of the glucokinase gene, resulting in the substitution at codon 259 of alanine by threonine (A259T). Observations from other glucokinase families suggest that hyperglycaemia in this child is likely to be stable and will not require intensive medical follow up, whereas other forms of MODY (1, 3, and 4) might carry a different prognosis.

Clinical and genetic determinants of urinary glucose excretion in patients with diabetes mellitus

AIMS/INTRODUCTION

Glucosuria is a representative symptom in diabetes patients with poor glycemic control and in those treated with sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors. Renal threshold levels of glucose excretion are known to vary among individuals, but factors contributing to glucosuria are not well characterized. The present study aimed to clarify clinical and genetic determinants of glucosuria in individuals with diabetes mellitus.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The 24-h urinary glucose excretion was measured in 135 hospitalized patients on admission, with continuous measurement for five consecutive days in 75 patients. Genetic and clinical factors contributing to glucosuria were studied. As a genetic factor, SLC5A2 polymorphism was genotyped. A total of 476 participants (266 participants with type 2 diabetes and 210 healthy controls) were additionally genotyped for the association study of SLC5A2 with type 2 diabetes. A meta-analysis was carried out with the present study and previous association studies.

RESULTS

Multiple regression analysis showed that the independent variables of average blood glucose (β = 0.41, P = 1.4 × 10-7 ), estimated glomerular filtration rate (β = 0.28, P = 6.0 × 10-5 ), sex (β = 0.28, P = 5.7 × 10-5 ) and SLC5A2 rs9934336 polymorphism (β = 0.17, P = 0.02) were significantly correlated with urinary glucose excretion. The frequency of the A allele of rs9934336 tended to be lower in participants with type 2 diabetes than in controls (odds ratio 0.78, 95% confidence interval 0.53-1.13, not significant), and meta-analysis showed a significant association between the A allele and type 2 diabetes (summary odds ratio for minor allele [A] 0.86, 95% confidence interval 0.78-0.94, P < 0.002).

CONCLUSIONS

Blood glucose, estimated glomerular filtration rate, sex and SLC5A2 polymorphism were independent determinants of glucosuria in diabetes mellitus.

Common variation at 16p11.2 is associated with glycosuria in pregnancy: findings from a genome-wide association study in European women

Glycosuria is a condition where glucose is detected in urine at higher concentrations than normal (i.e. not detectable). Glycosuria at some point during pregnancy has an estimated prevalence of 50% and is associated with adverse outcomes in both mothers and offspring. Little is currently known about the genetic contribution to this trait or the extent to which it overlaps with other seemingly related traits, e.g. diabetes. We performed a genome-wide association study (GWAS) for self-reported glycosuria in pregnant mothers from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (cases/controls = 1249/5140). We identified two loci, one of which (lead SNP = rs13337037; chromosome 16; odds ratio of glycosuria per effect allele: 1.42; 95% CI: 1.30, 1.56; P = 1.97 × 10-13) was then validated using an obstetric measure of glycosuria measured in the same cohort (227/6639). We performed a secondary GWAS in the 1986 Northern Finland Birth Cohort (NFBC1986; 747/2991) using midwife-reported glycosuria and offspring genotype as a proxy for maternal genotype. The combined results revealed evidence for a consistent effect on glycosuria at the chromosome 16 locus. In follow-up analyses, we saw little evidence of shared genetic underpinnings with the exception of urinary albumin-to-creatinine ratio (Rg = 0.64; SE = 0.22; P = 0.0042), a biomarker of kidney disease. In conclusion, we identified a genetic association with self-reported glycosuria during pregnancy, with the lead SNP located 15kB upstream of SLC5A2, a target of antidiabetic drugs. The lack of strong genetic correlation with seemingly related traits such as type 2 diabetes suggests different genetic risk factors exist for glycosuria during pregnancy.