"Candidatus Hafkinia simulans" gen. nov., sp. nov., a Novel Holospora-Like Bacterium from the Macronucleus of the Rare Brackish Water Ciliate Frontonia salmastra (Oligohymenophorea, Ciliophora): Multidisciplinary Characterization of the New Endosymbiont and Its Host

We characterized a novel Holospora-like bacterium (HLB) (Alphaproteobacteria, Holosporales) living in the macronucleus of the brackish water ciliate Frontonia salmastra. This bacterium was morphologically and ultrastructurally investigated, and its life cycle and infection capabilities were described. We also obtained its 16S rRNA gene sequence and performed in situ hybridization experiments with a specifically-designed probe. A new taxon, "Candidatus Hafkinia simulans", was established for this HLB. The phylogeny of the family Holosporaceae based on 16S rRNA gene sequences was inferred, adding to the already available data both the sequence of the novel bacterium and those of other Holospora and HLB species recently characterized. Our phylogenetic analysis provided molecular support for the monophyly of HLBs and placed the new endosymbiont as the sister genus of Holospora. Additionally, the host ciliate F. salmastra, recorded in Europe for the first time, was concurrently described through a multidisciplinary study. Frontonia salmastra's phylogenetic position in the subclass Peniculia and the genus Frontonia was assessed according to 18S rRNA gene sequencing. Comments on the biodiversity of this genus were added according to past and recent literature.

[Fibrillar actin in the nuclear apparatus of the ciliate Paramecium caudatum]

Due to their nuclear dualism, ciliates provide a good model for studying the role of actin in spatial organization and transcription activity of the nucleus. The actin in the nuclear apparatus of the ciliate Paramecium caudatum was studied using fluorescently labeled phalloiodin and indirect immunocytochemistry. Fibrillar actin was demonstrated in both of the nuclei. Actin was revealed in the chromatin areas, and was often associated with the periphery of the amplified nucleoli in the macronucleus. Redistribution of actin was observed depending on different physiological state of the cells. Stable infection of the macronulear with the intranuclear endobionts Holospora obtuse led to the loss of nuclear actin accompanied by significant nuclear fragility and redistribution of the phosphorylated form of the actin-binding protein cofilin. Spherical bodies resembling karyosphere were found in the macronuclear anlagen.

Translocation of an 89-kDa periplasmic protein is associated with Holospora infection

The symbiotic bacterium Holospora obtusa infects the macronucleus of the ciliate Paramecium caudatum. After ingestion by its host, an infectious form of Holospora with an electron-translucent tip passes through the host digestive vacuole and penetrates the macronuclear envelope with this tip. To investigate the underlying molecular mechanism of this process, we raised a monoclonal antibody against the tip-specific 89-kDa protein, sequenced this partially, and identified the corresponding complete gene. The deduced protein sequence carries two actin-binding motifs. Indirect immunofluorescence microscopy shows that during escape from the host digestive vacuole, the 89-kDa proteins translocates from the inside to the outside of the tip. When the bacterium invades the macronucleus, the 89-kDa protein is left behind at the entry point of the nuclear envelope. Transmission electron microscopy shows the formation of fine fibrous structures that co-localize with the antibody-labeled regions of the bacterium. Our findings suggest that the 89-kDa protein plays a role in Holospora's escape from the host digestive vacuole, the migration through the host cytoplasm, and the invasion into the macronucleus.

Co-infection of the Macronucleus of Paramecium caudatum by Free-Living Bacteria Together with the Infectious Holospora obtusa

Infection experiments were performed incubating Paramecium caudatum with non-infectious free-living bacteria or weakly infectious intracellular bacteria together with the infectious Holospora obtusa. Two of four non-infectious free-living bacteria (Enterobacter aerogenes and Klebsiella pneumoniae) were found to get into the nuclei when added to Paramecium together with H. obtusa. The endonuclear bacterium Nonospora macronucleata that is weakly infectious by itself increases its infectivity when presented together with the infectious holosporas. The results provide evidence that H. obtusa may facilitate entry of other, non-infectious bacteria into the nuclei of Paramecium.

Initial steps of infection of the ciliate Paramecium with bacteria Holospora sp

New light and electron microscope data on the initial steps of endocytobiosis establishment between the ciliate Paramecium and specific intranuclear bacteria Holospora are provided. At the cytoplasmic step of infection bacteria of all Holospora species are found in a vesicle originating from the membrane of the host cell phagosome. The association between host cell microfilaments and the bacterium bearing vesicle may suggest a possible involvement of the ciliate cytoskeleton in the transportation of bacteria to the host cell nucleus. The authors subdivide the process of infection into 6 steps. Some strains of P. caudatum never take up infectious Holospora bacteria in the course of phagocytosis.