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Sørensen OE, Borregaard N. Neutrophil extracellular traps - the dark side of neutrophils. J Clin Invest 2016; 126:1612-20. [PMID: 27135878 DOI: 10.1172/jci84538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 376] [Impact Index Per Article: 41.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) were discovered as extracellular strands of decondensed DNA in complex with histones and granule proteins, which were expelled from dying neutrophils to ensnare and kill microbes. NETs are formed during infection in vivo by mechanisms different from those originally described in vitro. Citrullination of histones by peptidyl arginine deiminase 4 (PAD4) is central for NET formation in vivo. NETs may spur formation of autoantibodies and may also serve as scaffolds for thrombosis, thereby providing a link among infection, autoimmunity, and thrombosis. In this review, we present the mechanisms by which NETs are formed and discuss the physiological and pathophysiological consequences of NET formation. We conclude that NETs may be of more importance in autoimmunity and thrombosis than in innate immune defense.
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Rosenstein ED, Greenwald RA, Kushner LJ, Weissmann G. Hypothesis: the humoral immune response to oral bacteria provides a stimulus for the development of rheumatoid arthritis. Inflammation 2006; 28:311-8. [PMID: 16245073 DOI: 10.1007/s10753-004-6641-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 267] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and adult periodontitis share common pathogenetic mechanisms and immunologic and pathological findings. One oral pathogen strongly implicated in the pathogenesis of periodontal disease, Porphyromonas gingivalis, possesses a unique microbial enzyme, peptidylarginine deiminase (PAD), the human equivalent of which has been identified as a susceptibility factor for RA. We suggest that individuals predisposed to periodontal infection are exposed to antigens generated by PAD, with de-iminated fibrin as a likely candidate, which become systemic immunogens and lead to intraarticular inflammation. PAD engendered antigens lead to production of rheumatoid factor-containing immune complexes and provoke local inflammation, both in gingiva and synovium via Fc and C5a receptors.
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Review |
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Cataldo AM, Hamilton DJ, Nixon RA. Lysosomal abnormalities in degenerating neurons link neuronal compromise to senile plaque development in Alzheimer disease. Brain Res 1994; 640:68-80. [PMID: 8004466 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(94)91858-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 160] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Antibodies to the lysosomal hydrolases, cathepsins B and D and beta-hexosaminidase A, revealed alterations of the endosomal-lysosomal system in neurons of the Alzheimer disease brain, which preceded evident degenerative changes and became marked as atrophy, neurofibrillary pathology, or chromatolysis developed. At the earliest stages of cell atrophy, hydrolase-positive lysosomes accumulated at the basal pole and then massively throughout the perikarya and proximal and proximal dendrites of affected pyramidal neurons in Alzheimer prefrontal cortex and hippocampus, far exceeding the changes of normal aging. Secondary lysosomes as well as tertiary residual bodies (lysosomes/lipofuscin) increased implying stimulated, autophagocytosis and lysosomal system activation. Less affected brain regions, such as the thalamus, displayed similar though less extensive alterations. Certain thalamic neurons exhibited a distinctive lysosome-related abnormality characterized by the presence of cell surface blebs of varying size and number filled with intense hydrolase immunoreactivity. At more advanced stages of degeneration in still intact neurons, hydrolase-positive lipofuscin, particularly in the form of abnormally large aggregates, nearly filled the cytoplasm. Similar lipofuscin aggregates were observed in abundance in the extracellular space following cell lysis and were usually associated with deposits of the beta-amyloid protein. Degenerating neurons and their processes were the major source of these aggregates within senile plaques which contained high concentrations of acid hydrolases. We have shown in previous studies that these lysosomal hydrolases in plaques are enzymatically-active. The persistence of lysosomal structures in the brain parenchyma after neurons have degenerated is a striking and potentially diagnostic feature of Alzheimer disease which has not been observed, to our knowledge, in other degenerative diseases. The lysosomal response in degenerating Alzheimer neurons represents a probable link between an early activation of the lysosomal system in at-risk, normal-appearing neurons and the end-stage contribution of lysosomes to senile plaque formation and emphasizes a slowly progressive disturbance of the lysosomal system throughout the development of Alzheimer disease.
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Quirke AM, Lugli EB, Wegner N, Hamilton BC, Charles P, Chowdhury M, Ytterberg AJ, Zubarev RA, Potempa J, Culshaw S, Guo Y, Fisher BA, Thiele G, Mikuls TR, Venables PJW. Heightened immune response to autocitrullinated Porphyromonas gingivalis peptidylarginine deiminase: a potential mechanism for breaching immunologic tolerance in rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 2014; 73:263-9. [PMID: 23463691 PMCID: PMC3888615 DOI: 10.1136/annrheumdis-2012-202726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 147] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2012] [Revised: 01/08/2013] [Accepted: 02/03/2013] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is characterised by autoimmunity to citrullinated proteins, and there is increasing epidemiologic evidence linking Porphyromonas gingivalis to RA. P gingivalis is apparently unique among periodontal pathogens in possessing a citrullinating enzyme, peptidylarginine deiminase (PPAD) with the potential to generate antigens driving the autoimmune response. OBJECTIVES To examine the immune response to PPAD in patients with RA, individuals with periodontitis (PD) and controls (without arthritis), confirm PPAD autocitrullination and identify the modified arginine residues. METHODS PPAD and an inactivated mutant (C351A) were cloned and expressed and autocitrullination of both examined by immunoblotting and mass spectrometry. ELISAs using PPAD, C351A and another P gingivalis protein arginine gingipain (RgpB) were developed and antibody reactivities examined in patients with RA (n=80), individuals with PD (n=44) and controls (n=82). RESULTS Recombinant PPAD was a potent citrullinating enzyme. Antibodies to PPAD, but not to Rgp, were elevated in the RA sera (median 122 U/ml) compared with controls (median 70 U/ml; p<0.05) and PD (median 60 U/ml; p<0.01). Specificity of the anti-peptidyl citrullinated PPAD response was confirmed by the reaction of RA sera with multiple epitopes tested with synthetic citrullinated peptides spanning the PPAD molecule. The elevated antibody response to PPAD was abolished in RA sera if the C351A mutant was used on ELISA. CONCLUSIONS The peptidyl citrulline-specific immune response to PPAD supports the hypothesis that, as a bacterial protein, it might break tolerance in RA, and could be a target for therapy.
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Darrah E, Rosen A, Giles JT, Andrade F. Peptidylarginine deiminase 2, 3 and 4 have distinct specificities against cellular substrates: novel insights into autoantigen selection in rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 2012; 71:92-8. [PMID: 21859690 PMCID: PMC3302156 DOI: 10.1136/ard.2011.151712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To define the relationship between autoantigen citrullination and different peptidylarginine deiminase (PAD) enzymes in rheumatoid arthritis (RA). METHODS Citrullinated autoantigens were identified by immunoblotting control and ionomycin-activated human primary neutrophil lysate with RA sera. Autoantigen identity and citrullination sites were defined by mass spectrometry. PAD isoenzyme expression in human neutrophils was determined by immunoblotting. PAD substrate specificity was addressed in HL-60 cell lysates co-incubated with human recombinant PAD2, PAD3 and PAD4. RESULTS Although prominent protein citrullination is observed in ionomycin-activated neutrophils, RA sera only recognised a limited number of these citrullinated molecules. Among these, the authors identified that β and γ-actins are citrullinated on at least 10 arginine residues, generating a novel 47 kDa species that is frequently recognised by RA autoantibodies. Interestingly, the authors showed that the PAD enzymes expressed in human neutrophils (ie, PAD2, PAD3 and PAD4) have unique substrate specificities, independent of their subcellular distribution. Thus, only PAD2 was able to citrullinate native β/γ-actin, while histone H3 was only citrullinated by PAD4. CONCLUSION These studies identified β and γ-actins as novel citrullinated autoantigens in RA, allowing enzyme specificity against intracellular substrates to be addressed. The studies provide evidence that PAD enzymes have the intrinsic capacity to select unique protein targets. The authors propose that unique PAD specificity may play a role in autoantigen selection in RA.
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Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural |
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138 |
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Russell DG, VanderVen B, Glennie S, Mwandumba H, Heyderman R. The macrophage marches on its phagosome: dynamic assays of phagosome function. Nat Rev Immunol 2009; 9:594-600. [PMID: 19590530 PMCID: PMC2776640 DOI: 10.1038/nri2591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Professional phagocytes ingest particulate material to fulfil a diverse array of functions in a multicellular organism. The ancestral function of phagosomes is digestion; however, through evolution this degradative capacity has become pivotal to the adaptive immune response by processing antigens to be presented to lymphocytes. Moreover, phagocytes have also acquired an active role in microbial killing. This Innovation article describes new assays that probe the biological activities which occur within phagosomes. These assays provide functional insights into how the phagosome fulfils its diverse roles in homeostasis and in innate and adaptive immune responses.
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Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural |
16 |
134 |
7
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Cooper PR, Palmer LJ, Chapple ILC. Neutrophil extracellular traps as a new paradigm in innate immunity: friend or foe? Periodontol 2000 2015; 63:165-97. [PMID: 23931060 DOI: 10.1111/prd.12025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/31/2012] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The discovery of neutrophil extracellular traps in 2004 opened a fascinating new chapter in immune-mediated microbial killing. Brinkman et al. demonstrated that neutrophils, when catastrophically stimulated, undergo a novel form of programmed cell death (neutrophil extracellular trap formation) whereby they decondense their entire nuclear chromatin/DNA and release the resulting structure into the cytoplasm to mix with granule-derived antimicrobial peptides before extruding these web-like structures into the extracellular environment. The process requires the activation of the granule enzyme peptidyl arginine deiminase-4, the formation of reactive oxygen species (in particular hypochlorous acid), the neutrophil microtubular system and the actin cytoskeleton. Recent work by Yousefi et al. demonstrated that exposure to different agents for shorter stimulation periods resulted in neutrophil extracellular trap release from viable granulocytes, and that such neutrophil extracellular traps comprised mitochondrial DNA rather than nuclear DNA and were also capable of microbial entrapment and destruction. Deficiency in NADPH-oxidase production (as found in patients with chronic granulomatous disease) results in an inability to produce neutrophil extracellular traps and, along with their failure to produce antimicrobial reactive oxygen species, these patients suffer from severe, and sometimes life-threatening, infections. However, conversely the release of nuclear chromatin into tissues is also potentially autoimmunogenic and is now associated with the generation of anti-citrullinated protein antibodies in seropositive rheumatoid arthritis. Other neutrophil-derived nuclear and cytoplasmic contents are also pathogenic, either through direct effects on tissues or via autoimmune processes (e.g. autoimmune vasculitis). In this review, we discuss the plant origins of a highly conserved innate immune method of microbial killing, the history and biology of neutrophil extracellular traps and their role in defence and in human diseases. We attempt to resolve areas of controversy and propose roles for excess neutrophil extracellular trap release from hyperactive/reactive neutrophils and for the unique peptidyl arginine deiminase enzyme of Porphyromonas gingivalis in the pathogenesis of periodontitis, and subsequently a role for periodontitis/the peptidyl arginine deiminase enzyme of P. gingivalis in the causal pathway of autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis. We propose that neutrophil extracellular trap and peptidyl arginine deiminase release may propagate tissue-destructive mechanisms rather than provide protection in susceptible individuals and that release of host-derived DNase may play an important role in the digestion and removal of neutrophil extracellular traps within tissues.
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Review |
10 |
128 |
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Wright PW, Bolling LC, Calvert ME, Sarmento OF, Berkeley EV, Shea MC, Hao Z, Jayes FC, Bush LA, Shetty J, Shore AN, Reddi PP, Tung KS, Samy E, Allietta MM, Sherman NE, Herr JC, Coonrod SA. ePAD, an oocyte and early embryo-abundant peptidylarginine deiminase-like protein that localizes to egg cytoplasmic sheets. Dev Biol 2003; 256:73-88. [PMID: 12654293 DOI: 10.1016/s0012-1606(02)00126-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Selected for its high relative abundance, a protein spot of MW approximately 75 kDa, pI 5.5 was cored from a Coomassie-stained two-dimensional gel of proteins from 2850 zona-free metaphase II mouse eggs and analyzed by tandem mass spectrometry (TMS), and novel microsequences were identified that indicated a previously uncharacterized egg protein. A 2.4-kb cDNA was then amplified from a mouse ovarian adapter-ligated cDNA library by RACE-PCR, and a unique 2043-bp open reading frame was defined encoding a 681-amino-acid protein. Comparison of the deduced amino acid sequence with the nonredundant database demonstrated that the protein was approximately 40% identical to the calcium-dependent peptidylarginine deiminase (PAD) enzyme family. Northern blotting, RT-PCR, and in situ hybridization analyses indicated that the protein was abundantly expressed in the ovary, weakly expressed in the testis, and absent from other tissues. Based on the homology with PADs and its oocyte-abundant expression pattern, the protein was designated ePAD, for egg and embryo-abundant peptidylarginine deiminase-like protein. Anti-recombinant ePAD monospecific antibodies localized the molecule to the cytoplasm of oocytes in primordial, primary, secondary, and Graafian follicles in ovarian sections, while no other ovarian cell type was stained. ePAD was also expressed in the immature oocyte, mature egg, and through the blastocyst stage of embryonic development, where expression levels began to decrease. Immunoelectron microscopy localized ePAD to egg cytoplasmic sheets, a unique keratin-containing intermediate filament structure found only in mammalian eggs and in early embryos, and known to undergo reorganization at critical stages of development. Previous reports that PAD-mediated deimination of epithelial cell keratin results in cytoskeletal remodeling suggest a possible role for ePAD in cytoskeletal reorganization in the egg and early embryo.
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Harris ML, Darrah E, Lam GK, Bartlett SJ, Giles JT, Grant AV, Gao P, Scott WW, El-Gabalawy H, Casciola-Rosen L, Barnes KC, Bathon JM, Rosen A. Association of autoimmunity to peptidyl arginine deiminase type 4 with genotype and disease severity in rheumatoid arthritis. ARTHRITIS AND RHEUMATISM 2008; 58:1958-67. [PMID: 18576335 PMCID: PMC2692635 DOI: 10.1002/art.23596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Protein citrullination is an important posttranslational modification recognized by rheumatoid arthritis (RA)-specific autoantibodies. One of the citrullinating enzymes, peptidyl arginine deiminase type 4 (PAD-4), is genetically associated with development of RA in some populations, although the mechanism(s) mediating this effect are not yet clear. There have been descriptions of anti-PAD-4 autoantibodies in different rheumatic diseases. This study was undertaken to investigate whether anti-PAD-4 antibodies are specific to RA, are associated with disease phenotype or severity, and whether PAD-4 polymorphisms influence the anti-PAD-4 autoantibody response. METHODS Sera from patients with established RA, patients with other rheumatic diseases, and healthy adults were assayed for anti-PAD-4 autoantibodies by immunoprecipitation of in vitro-translated PAD-4. The epitope(s) recognized by PAD-4 autoantibodies were mapped using various PAD-4 truncations. PAD-4 genotyping was performed on RA patients with the TaqMan assay. Joint erosions were scored from hand and foot radiographs using the Sharp/van der Heijde method. RESULTS PAD-4 autoantibodies were found in 36-42% of RA patients, and were very infrequent in controls. Recognition by anti-PAD-4 autoantibodies required the 119 N-terminal amino acids, which encompass the 3 nonsynonymous polymorphisms associated with disease susceptibility. Strikingly, the anti-PAD-4 immune response was associated with the RA susceptibility haplotype of PADI4. Anti-PAD-4 antibodies were associated with more severe joint destruction in RA. CONCLUSION Our findings indicate that anti-PAD-4 antibodies are specific markers of RA, independently associated with more severe disease, suggesting that an anti-PAD-4 immune response may be involved in pathways of joint damage in this disease. Polymorphisms in the PADI4 gene influence the immune response to the PAD-4 protein, potentially contributing to disease propagation.
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Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural |
17 |
114 |
10
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Kolfenbach JR, Deane KD, Derber LA, O’Donnell CI, Gilliland WR, Edison JD, Rosen A, Darrah E, Norris JM, Holers VM. Autoimmunity to peptidyl arginine deiminase type 4 precedes clinical onset of rheumatoid arthritis. ARTHRITIS AND RHEUMATISM 2010; 62:2633-9. [PMID: 20496417 PMCID: PMC2946499 DOI: 10.1002/art.27570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine whether antibodies against peptidyl arginine deiminase type 4 (PAD-4) are present in the preclinical phase of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and to compare the timing and extent of their appearance with those of other preclinical autoantibodies. METHODS Prediagnosis serum samples from 83 patients with RA were evaluated for the presence of anti-PAD-4 antibody, anti-cyclic citrullinated peptide (anti-CCP) antibody, and rheumatoid factor. In addition, a control cohort (n = 83) matched by age, sex, race, number of serum samples, and duration of serum storage was tested for the presence of anti-PAD-4 antibody to determine its sensitivity and specificity for the subsequent development of RA. RESULTS Fifteen of 83 patients with RA (18.1%) had at least 1 prediagnosis sample positive for anti-PAD-4. One of 83 control subjects (1.2%) had at least 1 positive sample, resulting in a sensitivity and specificity of 18.1% and 98.8%, respectively, of anti-PAD-4 for the future development of RA. The mean duration of anti-PAD-4 positivity prior to clinical diagnosis was 4.67 years. Anti-PAD-4 positivity was associated with anti-CCP positivity (odds ratio 5.13 [95% confidence interval 1.07-24.5]). In subjects with prediagnosis samples that were positive for both antibodies, anti-CCP positivity predated anti-PAD-4 positivity in 9 of 13 cases (69%). CONCLUSION Autoantibodies to PAD-4 are present during the preclinical phase of RA in a subset of patients and are associated with anti-CCP positivity. Further exploration is needed regarding the timing of appearance and disease-related effects of PAD-4 autoimmunity.
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Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural |
15 |
113 |
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Abstract
Tolerance blocks the expression of autoantibodies, whereas autoimmunity promotes it. How tolerance breaks and autoantibody production begins thus are crucial questions for understanding and treatment of autoimmune diseases. Evidence implicates cell death and autoantigen modifications in the initiation of autoimmune reactions. One form of neutrophil cell death called NETosis deserves attention because it requires the post-translational modification of histones and results in the extracellular release of chromatin. NETosis received its name from NET, the acronym given to Neutrophil Extracellular Trap. The extracellular chromatin incorporates histones in which arginines have been converted to citrullines by peptidylarginine deiminase IV (PAD4). The deiminated chromatin may function to capture or 'trap' bacterial pathogens, thus generating an extracellular complex of deiminated histones and bacterial cell adjuvants. The complex of bacterial antigens and deiminated chromatin may be internalised by host phagocytes during acute inflammatory conditions, as arise during bacterial infections or chronic autoinflammatory disorders. The uptake and processing of deiminated chromatin together with bacterial adjuvants by phagocytes may induce the presentation of modified histone epitopes and co-stimulation, thus yielding a powerful stimulus to break tolerance. Autoantibodies to deiminated histones are prevalent in Felty's syndrome patients and are present in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA). These observations clearly implicate histone deimination as an epigenetic mark that can act as an autoantibody stimulant.
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Review |
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Holtsberg FW, Ensor CM, Steiner MR, Bomalaski JS, Clark MA. Poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) conjugated arginine deiminase: effects of PEG formulations on its pharmacological properties. J Control Release 2002; 80:259-71. [PMID: 11943403 DOI: 10.1016/s0168-3659(02)00042-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Some tumors, such as melanomas and hepatocellular carcinomas, have a unique nutritional requirement for arginine. Thus, enzymatic degradation of extracellular arginine is one possible means for inhibiting these tumors. Arginine deiminase is an arginine degrading enzyme (ADI) that has been studied as an anti-cancer enzyme. However, ADI has a short serum half-life and, as a microbial enzyme, is highly immunogenic. Formulation of other therapeutic proteins with poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) has overcome these problems. Here, ADI-PEGs were synthesized using PEGs of varying size, structure (linear or branched chain) and linker chemistries. All ADI-PEGs retained approximately 50% of enzyme activity when PEG was covalently attached to approximately 40% of the primary amines irrespective of the PEG molecular weight or attachment chemistry used. However, it was observed that, as the PEG size increases to 20 kDa, there was a corresponding increase in the pharmacokinetic (pK) and pharmacodynamic (pD) properties of the formulation. Variation in PEG linker or structure, or the use of PEGs >20,000 mw, did not affect the pK or pD. As has been shown with other therapeutic proteins, repeated injection of ADI-PEG into experimental animals resulted in significantly lower titers of antibodies against this protein than unmodified ADI. These data suggest that formulation of ADI with PEG of 20,000 mw results is the optimal method for formulating this promising therapeutic agent.
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Comparative Study |
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108 |
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Andrade F, Darrah E, Gucek M, Cole RN, Rosen A, Zhu X. Autocitrullination of human peptidyl arginine deiminase type 4 regulates protein citrullination during cell activation. ARTHRITIS AND RHEUMATISM 2010; 62:1630-40. [PMID: 20201080 PMCID: PMC2951335 DOI: 10.1002/art.27439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To address mechanisms that control the activity of human peptidyl arginine deiminase type 4 (PAD-4). METHODS PAD-4 autocitrullination was determined by anti-modified citrulline immunoblotting, using purified recombinant and endogenous PAD-4 from activated human primary neutrophils and cell lines expressing PAD-4. The citrullination sites in PAD-4 were determined by mass spectrometry. Mechanisms of autocitrullination-induced inactivation and the functional consequences of autocitrullination in PAD-4 polymorphic variants were addressed using purified components and cell lines expressing PAD-4 wild-type, PAD-4 mutant, and PAD-4 polymorphic variants relevant to rheumatoid arthritis (RA). RESULTS PAD-4 is autocitrullinated in vitro and during activation of primary cells and cell lines expressing PAD-4. Interestingly, this modification inactivated the function of the enzyme. The efficiency of inactivation differed among genetically defined PAD-4 variants relevant to RA. PAD-4 was citrullinated at 10 sites, which are clustered into 3 distinct regions, including a cluster of arginines around the active site cleft where Arg-372 and -374 were identified as the potential autocitrullination targets that inactivate the enzyme. Autocitrullination also modified the structure of PAD-4, abrogating its recognition by multiple rabbit antibodies, but augmenting its recognition by human anti-PAD-4 autoantibodies. CONCLUSION Our findings suggest that autocitrullination regulates the production of citrullinated proteins during cell activation, and that this is affected by structural polymorphisms in PAD-4. Autocitrullination also influences PAD-4 structure and immune response.
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Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural |
15 |
105 |
14
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Kanno T, Kawada A, Yamanouchi J, Yosida-Noro C, Yoshiki A, Shiraiwa M, Kusakabe M, Manabe M, Tezuka T, Takahara H. Human peptidylarginine deiminase type III: molecular cloning and nucleotide sequence of the cDNA, properties of the recombinant enzyme, and immunohistochemical localization in human skin. J Invest Dermatol 2000; 115:813-23. [PMID: 11069618 DOI: 10.1046/j.1523-1747.2000.00131.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Peptidylarginine deiminase catalyzes the post-translational modification of proteins through the conversion of arginine to citrulline in the presence of calcium ions. In rodents, peptidylarginine deiminase has been classified into four isoforms, types I, II, III, and IV, which are distinct in their molecular weights, substrate specificities, and tissue localization. Of these isoforms, only type III was detected in epidermis and hair follicles. Although the role of this enzyme in these tissues is not yet clear, indirect data have shown that several structural proteins such as filaggrin, trichohyalin, and keratin are substrates for peptidylarginine deiminase. In this study, we cloned the full-length cDNA of human peptidylarginine deiminase type III (3142 bp) from cultured human keratinocytes by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction and by rapid amplification of cDNA ends methods. This cDNA contained a 1995 bp open reading frame encoding 664 amino acids (Mr = 74 770). To explore the physicochemical and enzymatic properties of human peptidylarginine deiminase type III, we constructed a plasmid for producing a recombinant human peptidylarginine deiminase type III in bacteria. The enzymatic characteristics of the recombinant enzyme were very similar to those of the rodent peptidylarginine deiminase type III. The recombinant enzyme showed the catalytic activities toward structural proteins of epidermis and hair follicle, filaggrin and trichohyalin, in which the deiminations maxima of about 60% and 13% arginine residues were observed in filaggrin and trichohyalin, respectively. An immunohistochemical study of human scalp skin with a monospecific anti-peptidyl-arginine deiminase type III antibody revealed that the type III enzyme was localized to the inner root sheath and outer root sheath of hair follicles. Peptidylarginine deiminase type III in the inner root sheath was notable between supramatrix and keratogenous zone and was scarcely detected in cornified hair zone. The enzyme was also expressed in the cuticle layer of hair. On the other hand, expression of the enzyme in the epidermis was very low. These data imply that human peptidylarginine deiminase type III is the predominant isoform in hair follicles and may function as a modulator of hair structural proteins, including trichohyalin during hair and hair follicle formation.
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Nachat R, Méchin MC, Takahara H, Chavanas S, Charveron M, Serre G, Simon M. Peptidylarginine Deiminase Isoforms 1–3 Are Expressed in the Epidermis and Involved in the Deimination of K1 and Filaggrin. J Invest Dermatol 2005; 124:384-93. [PMID: 15675958 DOI: 10.1111/j.0022-202x.2004.23568.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Post-translational conversion of arginine to citrulline residues is catalyzed by peptidylarginine deiminases (PAD). Although the existence of five isoforms of PAD has been reported in rodents and humans, their tissue distribution, substrate specificity, and physiological function have yet to be explored. In the epidermis, deimination of filaggrin and keratins is involved in maintaining hydration of the stratum corneum (SC), and hence the cutaneous barrier function. Here, RT-PCR, western blotting, and confocal microscopy analyses with anti-peptide antibodies highly specific for each of the PAD1-4 demonstrated that only PAD1-3 are expressed in mouse and human epidermis. PAD1 was detected in all layers, including the SC, and PAD2 in all the living layers, whereas PAD3 expression was shown to be restricted to the granular layer and lower SC. Moreover, PAD1 and 3 were observed to co-localize with (pro)filaggrin, and PAD2 to be located at the keratinocyte periphery in the stratum granulosum. We also detected PAD1 in extracts of superficial SC, where K1 is deiminated. Moreover, we showed that PAD1 and 3 are able to modify filaggrin in vitro. These data strongly suggest that each enzyme exerts a specific role in the course of epidermis differentiation.
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Watanabe K, Akiyama K, Hikichi K, Ohtsuka R, Okuyama A, Senshu T. Combined biochemical and immunochemical comparison of peptidylarginine deiminases present in various tissues. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 1988; 966:375-83. [PMID: 3416014 DOI: 10.1016/0304-4165(88)90088-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
We have performed a combined biochemical and immunochemical study on the identity of peptidylarginine deiminases (EC 3.5.3.15) present in various mammalian tissues. First, we purified peptidylarginine deiminase from rat skeletal muscle. It gave a single band of molecular weight 83,000 in sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Next we immunized rabbits with the purified enzyme. The resulting antibodies reacted specifically with the antigen in Western blot assay. Most of the enzyme activities present in rat skeletal muscle, brain, spinal cord, submaxillary gland and spleen could be characterized as the same muscle-type enzyme by immunoprecipitation and Western blot assay. The antibodies did not react with enzyme samples obtained from rat hair follicles and bovine epidermis. The lack of immunoreactivity of the epidermal enzyme could not be accounted for by the species difference, since the antibodies reacted with a 83 kDa polypeptide of bovine brain, which was thought to represent a bovine counterpart of the muscle-type enzyme. The epidermal enzyme could be distinguished from the other enzyme samples by its high activity towards benzoylarginine. These data suggest the existence of at least three types of peptidylarginine deiminase in mammalian tissues, i.e., a muscle type, a hair follicle type, and an epidermal type.
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Abstract
Pegylated arginine deiminase (ADI-PEG20) is a novel anticancer enzyme that produces depletion of arginine, which is a nonessential amino acid in humans. Certain tumours, such as malignant melanoma and hepatocellular carcinoma, are auxotrophic for arginine. These tumours that are sensitive to arginine depletion do not express argininosuccinate synthetase, a key enzyme in the synthesis of arginine from citrulline. ADI-PEG20 inhibits human melanomas and hepatocellular carcinomas in vitro and in vivo. Phase I - II trials in patients with melanoma and hepatocellular carcinomas have shown the drug to have antitumour activity and tolerable side effects. Large Phase II trials and randomised, controlled Phase III trials are needed to determine its overall efficacy in the treatment of these malignancies and others.
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Halvorsen EH, Pollmann S, Gilboe IM, van der Heijde D, Landewé R, Ødegård S, Kvien TK, Molberg Ø. Serum IgG antibodies to peptidylarginine deiminase 4 in rheumatoid arthritis and associations with disease severity. Ann Rheum Dis 2008; 67:414-7. [PMID: 18006540 DOI: 10.1136/ard.2007.080267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Antibodies targeting citrullinated antigens are specific for rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Citrullination is catalysed by the peptidylarginine deiminase (PAD) enzyme family. Critical enzymes are often targeted by disease-specific antibodies in complex immune-mediated diseases. Here, we have tested for autoantibodies against human recombinant PAD4 (hPAD4) in Caucasian RA patients. METHODS A time-resolved fluorometric immunoassay based on hPAD4 was developed to analyse sera from two RA cohorts (n = 237 and n = 177), one systemic lupus erythaematosus (SLE) cohort (n = 84) and 148 healthy controls. Simple and multiple analyses were performed to examine possible associations between anti-hPAD4 and disease variables. RESULTS Raised levels of anti-hPAD4 IgG were found in both RA cohorts compared to the controls, and 23% of the RA patients were anti-hPAD4 IgG positive. Anti-hPAD4 was associated with anti-cyclic citrullinated peptide (CCP) and rheumatoid factor (RF), as well as increased physical disability. Anti-hPAD4 was also associated with higher longitudinal radiographic damage scores and increased clinical joint pathology, but weaker than anti-CCP. No associations were found between anti-hPAD4 and selected Human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-DRB1 variants. CONCLUSIONS Approximately 23% of Caucasian RA patients have serum IgG antibodies against hPAD4. The presence of serum anti-hPAD4 IgG was in simple analyses associated with a more severe disease phenotype, and the association with physical disability was maintained in multiple analyses.
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Ishigami A, Ohsawa T, Asaga H, Akiyama K, Kuramoto M, Maruyama N. Human peptidylarginine deiminase type II: molecular cloning, gene organization, and expression in human skin. Arch Biochem Biophys 2002; 407:25-31. [PMID: 12392711 DOI: 10.1016/s0003-9861(02)00516-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Peptidylarginine deiminases (PADs) are posttranslational modification enzymes that convert protein arginine to citrulline residues in a calcium ion-dependent manner. Rodents have four isoforms of PAD (types I, II, III, and IV), each of which is distinct in substrate and tissue specificity. In fact, the only tissue in which all four PAD mRNAs have been detected is the epidermis. In this study, we found PAD activity in HSC-1 human cutaneous squamous carcinoma cells in vitro, and this activity increased during cultivation. Using a homology-based strategy, we cloned a full-length cDNA encoding human PAD type II. The cDNA was 2348 bp long and encoded a 665-amino-acid sequence with a predicted molecular mass of 75 kDa. The predicted protein shared 93% identity with the rat and mouse PAD type II sequence. Alignment of the amino acid sequences from both species revealed notable conservation in the C-terminal region, suggesting the presence of a functional region such as an enzyme catalytic site and/or a calcium-binding domain. Gene organization analysis established that human PAD type II on chromosome 1p35.2-p35.21 spanned more than 50 kb and contained 16 exons and 15 introns. A recombinant PAD protein subsequently produced in Escherichia coli proved to be enzymatically active, with substrate specificities similar to those of the rat PAD type II. In an immunohistochemical study of human skin, the type II enzyme was expressed by all the living epidermal layers, suggesting that PAD type II is functionally important during terminal differentiation of epidermal keratinocytes.
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Kimoto M, Tsuji H, Ogawa T, Sasaoka K. Detection of NG,NG-dimethylarginine dimethylaminohydrolase in the nitric oxide-generating systems of rats using monoclonal antibody. Arch Biochem Biophys 1993; 300:657-62. [PMID: 8434946 DOI: 10.1006/abbi.1993.1091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
In order to elucidate the biological role of NG,NG-dimethylarginine dimethylaminohydrolase (EC 3.5.3.18), we prepared monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) against the enzyme from rat kidney and examined the distribution of the enzyme in rats. Four mAbs have been obtained by the fusion of the spleen cells from BALB/c mouse immunized with the sodium dodecyl sulfate-denatured or native enzyme and P3X63Ag8U1 myeloma cells. All the mAbs were shown to bind to the denatured enzyme, but none of them could recognize the native enzyme. The occurrence of the enzyme protein in various rat tissues and cell systems such as peritoneal neutrophils and macrophages was examined using an immunoblotting technique with one of the mAbs. The immunoblotting analyses showed that the enzyme protein is widely distributed in rats, particularly, in kidney, pancreas, liver, brain, and aorta at high concentrations. Furthermore, the enzyme protein was clearly shown to exist in peritoneal neutrophils and macrophages. Since NG-monomethylarginine and NG,NG-dimethylarginine have been suggested to be specific blockers of the systems generating nitric oxide (NO), the above findings are of great interest in connection with the regulation of the NO production in such tissues and cell systems as aorta, brain, peritoneal neutrophils, and macrophages.
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Konig MF, Paracha AS, Moni M, Bingham CO, Andrade F. Defining the role of Porphyromonas gingivalis peptidylarginine deiminase (PPAD) in rheumatoid arthritis through the study of PPAD biology. Ann Rheum Dis 2015; 74:2054-61. [PMID: 24864075 PMCID: PMC4368502 DOI: 10.1136/annrheumdis-2014-205385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2014] [Accepted: 05/01/2014] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Antibodies to citrullinated proteins are a hallmark of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Porphyromonas gingivalis peptidylarginine deiminase (PPAD) has been implicated in the initiation of RA by generating citrullinated neoantigens and due to its ability to autocitrullinate. OBJECTIVES To define the citrullination status and biology of PPAD in P gingivalis and to characterise the anti-PPAD antibody response in RA and associated periodontal disease (PD). METHODS PPAD in P gingivalis cells and culture supernatant were analysed by immunoblotting and mass spectrometry to detect citrullination. Recombinant PPAD (rPPAD), inactive mutant PPAD (rPPAD(C351S)), and N-terminal truncated PPAD (rPPAD(Ntx)) were cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli. Patients with RA and healthy controls were assayed for IgG antibodies to citrullinated rPPAD and unmodified rPPAD(C351S) by ELISA. Anti-PPAD antibodies were correlated with anti-cyclic citrullinated peptide (third-generation) antibody levels, RA disease activity and PD status. RESULTS PPAD from P gingivalis is truncated at the N-terminal and C-terminal domains and not citrullinated. Only when artificially expressed in E coli, full-length rPPAD, but not truncated (fully active) rPPAD(Ntx), is autocitrullinated. Anti-PPAD antibodies show no heightened reactivity to citrullinated rPPAD, but are exclusively directed against the unmodified enzyme. Antibodies against PPAD do not correlate with anti-cyclic citrullinated peptide levels and disease activity in RA. By contrast, anti-PPAD antibody levels are significantly decreased in RA patients with PD. CONCLUSIONS PPAD autocitrullination is not the underlying mechanism linking PD and RA. N-terminal processing protects PPAD from autocitrullination and enhances enzyme activity. Anti-PPAD antibodies may have a protective role for the development of PD in patients with RA.
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Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural |
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Eley BM, Cox SW. Proteolytic and hydrolytic enzymes from putative periodontal pathogens: characterization, molecular genetics, effects on host defenses and tissues and detection in gingival crevice fluid. Periodontol 2000 2003; 31:105-24. [PMID: 12656998 DOI: 10.1034/j.1600-0757.2003.03107.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Review |
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Janowitz T, Kneifel H, Piotrowski M. Identification and characterization of plant agmatine iminohydrolase, the last missing link in polyamine biosynthesis of plants. FEBS Lett 2003; 544:258-61. [PMID: 12782327 DOI: 10.1016/s0014-5793(03)00515-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The cloning, expression and characterization of plant agmatine iminohydrolase (AIH, also known as agmatine deiminase, EC 3.5.3.12) is described. Recombinant AIH of Arabidopsis thaliana forms dimers and catalyzes the specific conversion of agmatine to N-carbamoylputrescine and ammonia. Biochemical data suggested that cysteine side chains are involved in catalysis. However, site-directed mutagenesis of the two highly conserved cysteine residues of AIH showed that these cysteines are important but not essential for activity, arguing against a thioester substrate-enzyme intermediate during catalysis. This work represents the completion of the cloning of the arginine decarboxylase pathway genes of higher plants.
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Kvittingen EA, Rootwelt H, Brandtzaeg P, Bergan A, Berger R. Hereditary tyrosinemia type I. Self-induced correction of the fumarylacetoacetase defect. J Clin Invest 1993; 91:1816-21. [PMID: 8473520 PMCID: PMC288163 DOI: 10.1172/jci116393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Two Norwegian patients with chronic tyrosinemia type I showed > 50% residual fumarylacetoacetase activity in liver samples obtained during liver transplantation. The enzyme characteristics of both patients were comparable with those of a normal control. Immunohistochemistry on liver sections from these patients and from three other Norwegian tyrosinemia patients revealed a mosaicism of fumarylacetoacetase immunoreactivity corresponding completely or partly to some of the regenerating nodules. This appearance of enzyme protein is presumably induced by the disease process. The mechanism involved remains unclear and could be caused by a genetic alteration, regained translation of messenger RNA, or to enhanced stability of an abnormal enzyme.
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Endig J, Buitrago-Molina LE, Marhenke S, Reisinger F, Saborowski A, Schütt J, Limbourg F, Könecke C, Schreder A, Michael A, Misslitz AC, Healy ME, Geffers R, Clavel T, Haller D, Unger K, Finegold M, Weber A, Manns MP, Longerich T, Heikenwälder M, Vogel A. Dual Role of the Adaptive Immune System in Liver Injury and Hepatocellular Carcinoma Development. Cancer Cell 2016; 30:308-323. [PMID: 27478039 DOI: 10.1016/j.ccell.2016.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2015] [Revised: 03/09/2016] [Accepted: 06/16/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) represents a classic example of inflammation-linked cancer. To characterize the role of the immune system in hepatic injury and tumor development, we comparatively studied the extent of liver disease and hepatocarcinogenesis in immunocompromised versus immunocompetent Fah-deficient mice. Strikingly, chronic liver injury and tumor development were markedly suppressed in alymphoid Fah(-/-) mice despite an overall increased mortality. Mechanistically, we show that CD8(+) T cells and lymphotoxin β are central mediators of HCC formation. Antibody-mediated depletion of CD8(+) T cells as well as pharmacological inhibition of the lymphotoxin-β receptor markedly delays tumor development in mice with chronic liver injury. Thus, our study unveils distinct functions of the immune system, which are required for liver regeneration, survival, and hepatocarcinogenesis.
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