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Lüllmann H, Lüllmann-Rauch R, Wassermann O. Lipidosis induced by amphiphilic cationic drugs. Biochem Pharmacol 1978; 27:1103-8. [PMID: 358990 DOI: 10.1016/0006-2952(78)90435-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 266] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Abstract
Phospholipidosis, a phospholipid storage disorder, defines an excessive accumulation of intracellular phospholipids. Phospholipids are structural components of mammalian cytoskeleton and cell membranes. The metabolism of this essential cell component is regulated by the individual cell and may be altered by drugs that interact with phospholipids or the enzymes that affect their metabolism. Xenobiotics or their metabolites that induce phospholipidosis include a wide variety of pharmacologic agents, including antibacterials, antipsychotics, antidepressants, antiarrhythmics, antianginals, antimalarials, anorexic agents, cholesterol-lowering agents, and others. Each of these drugs shares several common physiochemical properties: hydrophobic ring structure on the molecule and a hydrophilic side chain with a charged cationic amine group, hence the class term cationic amphiphilic drugs (CADs). This paper reviews the phospholipid metabolism, physiochemical characteristics of CADs, specificity of phospholipidosis in animals and humans, functional effects of phospholipidosis, interaction of CADs with biologic membranes and lysosome metabolism, influence of CADs on phospholipases and phospholipid synthesis, and a proposed mechanism for induction of phospholipidosis in the lung. In human risk assessment, investigators should consider the many factors in evaluating a drug that induces phospholipidosis in animals. These include: the therapeutic class of drug, presence of active metabolites, tissue or organ selectivity in animals and humans, influence of concurrently administered drugs, reversibility of effect, and other factors that increase or decrease the induction of phospholipidosis. Generalities regarding the etiology, incidence, and effect of the drug on a specific host may not be made. Each drug must be evaluated separately to identify the risk when administered for therapeutic effect in humans.
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Anderson N, Borlak J. Drug-induced phospholipidosis. FEBS Lett 2006; 580:5533-40. [PMID: 16979167 DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2006.08.061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 249] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2006] [Revised: 07/03/2006] [Accepted: 08/25/2006] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Drug-induced phospholipidosis is characterized by intracellular accumulation of phospholipids with lamellar bodies, most likely from an impaired phospholipid metabolism of the lysosome. Organs affected by phospholipidosis exhibit inflammatory reactions and histopathological changes. Despite significant advances in the understanding of drug-altered lipid metabolism, the relationship between impaired phospholipid metabolism and drug-induced toxicity remains enigmatic. Here we review molecular features of inheritable lysosomal storage disorders as a molecular mimicry of drug-induced phospholipidosis for an improved understanding of adverse drug reaction.
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Reasor MJ, Kacew S. Drug-induced phospholipidosis: are there functional consequences? Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2001; 226:825-30. [PMID: 11568304 DOI: 10.1177/153537020122600903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 192] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Phospholipidosis induced by drugs with a cationic amphiphilic structure is a generalized condition in humans and animals that is characterized by an intracellular accumulation of phospholipids and the concurrent development of concentric lamellar bodies. The primary mechanism responsible for the development of phospholipidosis is an inhibition of lysosomal phospholipase activity by the drugs. While the biochemical and ultrastructural features of the condition have been well characterized, much less effort has been directed toward understanding whether the condition has adverse effects on the organism. While there are a few cationic amphiphilic drugs that have been reported to cause phospholipidosis in humans, the principal concern with this condition is in the pharmaceutical industry during preclinical testing. While this class of drugs should technically be referred to as cationic lipophilic, the term cationic amphiphilic is widely used and recognized in this field, and for this reason, the terminology cationic amphiphilic drugs (CADs) will be employed in this Minireview. The aim of this Minireview is to provide an evaluation of the state of knowledge on the functional consequences of CAD-induced phospholipidosis.
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Sawada H, Takami K, Asahi S. A toxicogenomic approach to drug-induced phospholipidosis: analysis of its induction mechanism and establishment of a novel in vitro screening system. Toxicol Sci 2004; 83:282-92. [PMID: 15342952 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfh264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 161] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Phospholipidosis is a lipid storage disorder in which excess phospholipids accumulate within cells. Some cationic amphiphilic compounds are known to have the potential to induce phospholipidosis. This study was undertaken to examine the molecular mechanisms that contribute to the development of phospholipidosis and to identify specific markers that might form the basis of an in vitro screening test. Specifically, we performed a large-scale gene expression analysis using DNA microarrays on human hepatoma HepG2 cells after they were treated with each of 12 compounds known to induce phospholipidosis. In electron microscopy, HepG2 cells developed lamellar myelin-like bodies in their lysosomes, the characteristic change of phospholipidosis, after treatment with these compounds for 72 h. DNA microarray analysis performed 6 and 24 h after treatment showed alterations in gene expression reflecting the inhibition of lysosomal phospholipase activity and lysosomal enzyme transport, and the induction of phospholipid and cholesterol biosynthesis. Seventeen genes that showed a similar expression profile following treatment were selected as candidate markers. Real-time PCR analysis confirmed that 12 gene markers showed significant concordance with lamellar myelin-like body formation. Furthermore, the average fold change values of these markers correlated well with the magnitude of this pathological change. In conclusion, microarray analysis revealed that factors such as alterations in lysosomal function and cholesterol metabolism were involved in the induction of phospholipidosis. Furthermore, comprehensive gene expression analysis enabled us to identify biomarkers of this condition that we then used to develop a rapid and sensitive in vitro screening test for drug-induced phospholipidosis.
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Tummino TA, Rezelj VV, Fischer B, Fischer A, O'Meara MJ, Monel B, Vallet T, White KM, Zhang Z, Alon A, Schadt H, O'Donnell HR, Lyu J, Rosales R, McGovern BL, Rathnasinghe R, Jangra S, Schotsaert M, Galarneau JR, Krogan NJ, Urban L, Shokat KM, Kruse AC, García-Sastre A, Schwartz O, Moretti F, Vignuzzi M, Pognan F, Shoichet BK. Drug-induced phospholipidosis confounds drug repurposing for SARS-CoV-2. Science 2021; 373:541-547. [PMID: 34326236 PMCID: PMC8501941 DOI: 10.1126/science.abi4708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 148] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2021] [Accepted: 06/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Repurposing drugs as treatments for COVID-19, the disease caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has drawn much attention. Beginning with sigma receptor ligands and expanding to other drugs from screening in the field, we became concerned that phospholipidosis was a shared mechanism underlying the antiviral activity of many repurposed drugs. For all of the 23 cationic amphiphilic drugs we tested, including hydroxychloroquine, azithromycin, amiodarone, and four others already in clinical trials, phospholipidosis was monotonically correlated with antiviral efficacy. Conversely, drugs active against the same targets that did not induce phospholipidosis were not antiviral. Phospholipidosis depends on the physicochemical properties of drugs and does not reflect specific target-based activities-rather, it may be considered a toxic confound in early drug discovery. Early detection of phospholipidosis could eliminate these artifacts, enabling a focus on molecules with therapeutic potential.
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Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural |
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Laurent G, Kishore BK, Tulkens PM. Aminoglycoside-induced renal phospholipidosis and nephrotoxicity. Biochem Pharmacol 1990; 40:2383-92. [PMID: 2268362 DOI: 10.1016/0006-2952(90)90078-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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Morelli JK, Buehrle M, Pognan F, Barone LR, Fieles W, Ciaccio PJ. Validation of an in vitro screen for phospholipidosis using a high-content biology platform. Cell Biol Toxicol 2006; 22:15-27. [PMID: 16463016 DOI: 10.1007/s10565-006-0176-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2005] [Accepted: 08/23/2005] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Several cationic amphiphilic drugs cause local or systemic phospholipidosis (PLD) after chronic exposure in preclinical species. PLD is characterized by the accumulation of drug, phospholipid, and concentric lamellar bodies in cellular lysosomes. We have developed a fluorescence-based in vitro screen that is predictive of PLD using the Cellomics ArrayScan high-content screening platform, which captures and analyzes images from 96-well cell culture microtiter plates using multichannel fluorescence microscopy. I-13.35 adherent mouse spleen macrophage cells were cultured with drug and a fluorescently tagged phospholipid, N-(7-nitrobenz-2-oxa-1,3-diazol-4-yl)-1,2-dihexadecanoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine (NBD-PE). Drug concentrations were used in a range from 1 to 100 micro mol/L. After 24 h incubations, the cells were fixed with formalin. NBD-PE uptake was quantified in controls and treated cells. Nuclei were identified by Hoechst 33258 staining and dead cells were identified using ethidium homodimer-2 incorporation. Thus, confounding accumulation of NBD-PE due to cytotoxicity that produces false-positive results at high concentrations was eliminated from quantitation by ethidium staining and employing cell gating (dead cell rejection). The assay was found to be both sensitive and selective in that 26 of 28 positive, phospholipidogenic controls and 8 of 8 negative, non-phospholipidogenic controls were correctly called.
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Yamamoto A, Adachi S, Ishikawa K, Yokomura T, Kitani T. Studies on drug-induced lipidosis. 3. Lipid composition of the liver and some other tissues in clinical cases of "Niemann-Pick-like syndrome" induced by 4,4'-diethylaminoethoxyhexestrol. J Biochem 1971; 70:775-84. [PMID: 5144610 DOI: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.jbchem.a129695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
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Nioi P, Perry BK, Wang EJ, Gu YZ, Snyder RD. In Vitro Detection of Drug-Induced Phospholipidosis Using Gene Expression and Fluorescent Phospholipid Based Methodologies. Toxicol Sci 2007; 99:162-73. [PMID: 17567588 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfm157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Phospholipidosis (PLD) is characterized by the excessive intracellular accumulation of phospholipids. It is well established that a large number of cationic amphiphilic drugs have the potential to induce PLD. In the present study, we describe two facile in vitro methods to determine the PLD-inducing potential of a molecule. The first approach is based on a recent study by (Sawada et al., 2005, Toxicol. Sci. 83, 282-292) in which 17 genes were identified as potential biomarkers of PLD in HepG2 cells. To confirm the utility of this gene panel, we treated HepG2 cells with PLD-positive and -negative compounds and then analyzed gene expression using real-time PCR. Our initial analysis, which used a single dose of each drug, correctly identified five of eight positive compounds and four of four negative compounds. We then increased the doses of the three false negatives (amiodarone, tamoxifen, and loratadine) and found that the changes in gene expression became large enough to correctly identify them as PLD-inducing drugs. Our results suggest that a range of concentrations should be used to increase the accuracy of prediction in this assay. Our second approach utilized a fluorescently labeled phospholipid (LipidTox) which was added to the media of growing HepG2 cells along with compounds positive and negative for PLD. Phospholipid accumulation was determined using confocal microscopy and, more quantitatively, using a 96-well plate assay and a fluorescent plate reader. Using an expanded set of compounds, we show that this assay correctly identified 100% of PLD-positive and -negative compounds. Dose-dependent increases in intracellular fluorescent phospholipid accumulation were observed. We found that this assay was less time consuming, more sensitive, and higher throughput than gene expression analysis. To our knowledge, this study represents the first validation of the use of LipidTox in identifying drugs that can induce PLD.
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Hostetler KY, Matsuzawa Y. Studies on the mechanism of drug-induced lipidosis. Cationic amphiphilic drug inhibition of lysosomal phospholipases A and C. Biochem Pharmacol 1981; 30:1121-6. [PMID: 7259794 DOI: 10.1016/0006-2952(81)90451-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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Abstract
A variety of drugs used in clinical practice may cause myopathy or interfere with neuromuscular transmission. The precise incidence of such disorders is not known, but it is almost certainly higher than is generally suspected. An important aspect of drug-induced muscular disorders is their reversibility if the offending agent is withdrawn, whereas failure to do so may lead to unnecessary morbidity. The study of drug effects on muscle provides a means of investigating the pathological reactions of muscle, and of producing experimental models of naturally occurring myopathies. Drug-induced myopathies may result from a direct toxic effect, which may be local when the drug is injected into a muscle or more diffuse when the drug is taken systemically, or may be secondary to electrolyte disturbances, muscle compression, ischaemia, neural activation or to the development of an immunological reaction directed against muscle. Repeated injections of antibiotics or drugs of addiction may lead to severe muscle fibrosis and contractures. A variety of drugs may cause an acute or subacute painful necrotising myopathy which may be associated with myoglobinuria, at times leading to acute renal failure. Clofibrate and epsilon aminocaproic acid are the drugs most frequently implicated, but a similar syndrome may occur in alcoholics and heroin addicts. Certain hypocholesterolaemic agents may induce myotonia by altering the sterol composition of the muscle cell membrane, while certain drugs including beta-adrenergic blockers and agonists, succinylcholine and diuretics may exacerbate or unmask pre-existing myotonia. In the syndrome of malignant hyperpyrexia, halothane, succinylcholine and various other agents may induce a potentially fatal state of muscular rigidity and hypermetabolism in susceptible individuals as a result of a defect in the calcium transport function of the sarcoplasmic reticulum and possibly of other cellular membranes. In corticosteroid myopathy, which is the most common form of drug-induced myopathy, there is selective atrophy of type 2 muscle fibres and the primary metabolic effect is an inhibition of RNA and protein synthesis, although protein degradation is also increased. Chloroquine and a number of related drugs with amphiphilic cationic properties may induce lysosomal storage myopathy, which may be associated with cardiomyopathy and with a more widespread form of lipidosis.
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Hullin-Matsuda F, Luquain-Costaz C, Bouvier J, Delton-Vandenbroucke I. Bis(monoacylglycero)phosphate, a peculiar phospholipid to control the fate of cholesterol: Implications in pathology. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 2009; 81:313-24. [PMID: 19857945 DOI: 10.1016/j.plefa.2009.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2009] [Revised: 09/21/2009] [Accepted: 09/21/2009] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Bis(monoacylglycero)phosphate (BMP) is a structural isomer of phosphatidylglycerol that exhibits an unusual sn1:sn1' stereoconfiguration, based on the position of the phosphate moiety on its two glycerol units. Early works have underlined the high concentration of BMP in the lysosomal compartment, especially during some lysosomal storage disorders and drug-induced phospholipidosis. Despite numerous studies, both biosynthetic and degradative pathways of BMP remained not completely elucidated. More recently, BMP has been localized in the internal membranes of late endosomes where it forms specialized lipid domains. Its involvement in both dynamics and lipid/protein sorting functions of late endosomes has started to be documented, especially in the control of cellular cholesterol distribution. BMP also plays an important role in the late endosomal/lysosomal degradative pathway. Another peculiarity of BMP is to be naturally enriched in docosahexaenoic acid and/or to specifically incorporate this fatty acid compared to other polyunsaturated fatty acids, which may confer specific biophysical and functional properties to this phospholipid. This review summarizes and updates our knowledge on BMP with an emphasis on its possible implication in human health and diseases, especially in relation to cholesterol homeostasis.
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Holmgren G, Sjögren AK, Barragan I, Sabirsh A, Sartipy P, Synnergren J, Björquist P, Ingelman-Sundberg M, Andersson TB, Edsbagge J. Long-term chronic toxicity testing using human pluripotent stem cell-derived hepatocytes. Drug Metab Dispos 2014; 42:1401-6. [PMID: 24980256 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.114.059154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/13/2025] Open
Abstract
Human pluripotent stem cells (hPSC) have the potential to become important tools for the establishment of new models for in vitro drug testing of, for example, toxicity and pharmacological effects. Late-stage attrition in the pharmaceutical industry is to a large extent caused by selection of drug candidates using nonpredictive preclinical models that are not clinically relevant. The current hepatic in vivo and in vitro models show clear limitations, especially for studies of chronic hepatotoxicity. For these reasons, we evaluated the potential of using hPSC-derived hepatocytes for long-term exposure to toxic drugs. The differentiated hepatocytes were incubated with hepatotoxic compounds for up to 14 days, using a repeated-dose approach. The hPSC-derived hepatocytes became more sensitive to the toxic compounds after extended exposures and, in addition to conventional cytotoxicity, evidence of phospholipidosis and steatosis was also observed in the cells. This is, to the best of our knowledge, the first report of a long-term toxicity study using hPSC-derived hepatocytes, and the observations support further development and validation of hPSC-based toxicity models for evaluating novel drugs, chemicals, and cosmetics.
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Baronas ET, Lee JW, Alden C, Hsieh FY. Biomarkers to monitor drug-induced phospholipidosis. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2006; 218:72-8. [PMID: 17156806 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2006.10.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2006] [Revised: 10/18/2006] [Accepted: 10/19/2006] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Di-docosahexaenoyl (C22:6)-bis(monoacylglycerol) phosphate (BMP) was identified as a promising phospholipidosis (PL) biomarker in rats treated with either amiodarone, gentamicin, or azithromycin. Sprague-Dawley rats received either amiodarone (150 mg/kg), gentamicin (100 mg/kg) or azithromycin (30 mg/kg) once daily for ten consecutive days. Histopathological examination of tissues by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) indicated different degrees of accumulation of phospholipidosis in liver, lung, mesenteric lymph node, and kidney of drug-treated rats but not controls. Liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (LC/MS) was used to identify levels of endogenous biochemical profiles in rat urine. Urinary levels of di-docosahexaenoyl (C22:6)-bis(monoacylglycerol) phosphate (BMP) correlated with induction of phospholipidosis for amiodarone, gentamicin and azithromycin. Rats treated with gentamicin also had increased urinary levels of several phosphatidylinositol (PI), phosphatidylcholine (PC), and phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) species.
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Kasahara T, Tomita K, Murano H, Harada T, Tsubakimoto K, Ogihara T, Ohnishi S, Kakinuma C. Establishment of an In Vitro High-Throughput Screening Assay for Detecting Phospholipidosis-Inducing Potential. Toxicol Sci 2005; 90:133-41. [PMID: 16338956 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfj067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Excessive accumulation of phospholipids results in phospholipidosis (PL), which may interfere with cellular functions, leading to acute or chronic disease or even death. Electron-microscopic detection of cytoplasmic lamellar bodies is often used as a diagnostic criterion of PL, but a faster, more convenient procedure is required for high-throughput assay of the PL-inducing potential of candidate drugs. We have developed a 96-well microplate cell-culture method for detecting PL, using a phosphatidylcholine-conjugated dye (NBD-PC) and a fluoro-microplate reader. The fluorescence intensity due to NBD-PC was normalized to that of Hoechst33342, used as an indicator of cell number, to obtain the amount of NBD-PC taken up per living cell. To select a suitable cell type, we examined the PL-detection sensitivity of five cell lines, as well as human and rat primary hepatocyte cultures, with five cationic amphiphilic drugs (CAD) as PL inducers and a negative control compound. The cell lines CHO-K1 and CHL/IU gave the best results. The NBD-PC uptake per CHO-K1 cell showed a high correlation with the pathological score of PL for 24 compounds, including PL-positive and negative compounds. This high-throughput screening assay for PL-inducing potential (HTS-PL assay) offers high sensitivity and accuracy, and it allows simultaneous determination of cytotoxicity.
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Ribelin WE. The effects of drugs and chemicals upon the structure of the adrenal gland. FUNDAMENTAL AND APPLIED TOXICOLOGY : OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF TOXICOLOGY 1984; 4:105-19. [PMID: 6692999 DOI: 10.1016/0272-0590(84)90224-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
The susceptibility of the endocrine tissues to compound-induced lesions may be ranked in the following decreasing order of frequency: adrenal, testis, thyroid, ovary, pancreas, pituitary, and parathyroid. The first two are by far the most frequently affected. Pathologists unaccustomed to the evaluation of endocrine effects are often unaware of the number of compounds producing specific lesions in the adrenal. Compounds may produce changes in one of the following zones: fasciculata/reticularis, glomerulosa, or medulla. They are listed in this paper by affected zones. In the fasciculata/reticularis lesions are generally either degenerative or proliferative; in the glomerulosa they are necrotic or atrophic; in the medulla lesions are generally hypertrophic or proliferative.
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Casartelli A, Bonato M, Cristofori P, Crivellente F, Dal Negro G, Masotto I, Mutinelli C, Valko K, Bonfante V. A cell-based approach for the early assessment of the phospholipidogenic potential in pharmaceutical research and drug development. Cell Biol Toxicol 2003; 19:161-76. [PMID: 12945744 DOI: 10.1023/a:1024778329320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Phospholipidosis is a term commonly used to indicate a phospholipid storage disorder; in affected cells, phospholipids accumulate in lysosomes that acquire a multilamellar morphological appearance. Cationic amphiphilic drugs (CADs) are suggested to induce phospholipidosis by direct interaction of xenobiotics with intracellular phospholipids or by the action of xenobiotics on the synthesis and metabolism of phospholipids. To date, electron microscopy (EM) represents the most reliable and the preferred method for the demonstration of phospholipidotic cell damage. Nevertheless, EM has a low throughput, it is expensive, and it is not suitable for screening purposes. We discuss here the assessment of the the phospholipidogenic potential of drugs using a cell culture-based model. In this test, intracellular phospholipids of treated U-937 cells (a human monocyte-derived cell line) were measured using the fluorescent probe Nile red. Eleven CADs reported to induce phospholipidosis in vivo and eight nonphospholipidogenic drugs were tested. Results obtained with the U-937 model confirmed the phospholipidogenic potential of drugs tested as described in the literature. Results have also been correlated with data obtained with a physical-chemical model (chromatographic hydrophobicity index measurement). Good correlation was obtained, confirming that the physical-chemical properties of CADs play a crucial role in the development of phospholipidosis. This work demonstrates that the U-937 model is a rapid and sensitive method for the determination of phospholipidosis-mediated cell damage. The specificity and the predictive potency observed make this method suitable for screening purposes in pharmaceutical development.
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Tomizawa K, Sugano K, Yamada H, Horii I. PHYSICOCHEMICAL AND CELL-BASED APPROACH FOR EARLY SCREENING OF PHOSPHOLIPIDOSIS-INDUCING POTENTIAL. J Toxicol Sci 2006; 31:315-24. [PMID: 17077586 DOI: 10.2131/jts.31.315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Some of the principal requisites of toxicity screening methods in drug discovery are their ease to perform and high throughput, as well as the possibility to predict the occurrence of clinical events. Phospholipidosis is one of the toxicities often induced by potential drugs. Several physicochemical methods for the prediction of phospholipidosis have been reported. The purpose of the present study was to examine the predictability of methods based on lipophilicity and charge parameters. We employed a test set of 33 compounds including 11 in-house compounds. The phospholipidosis-inducing potential (PLIP) of the test set compounds was determined by the fluorescence-labeled lipid accumulation assay using isolated rat hepatocytes. This assay was verified by transmission electron microscopy (EM). The usefulness of the ClogP - most basic pK(a) (pK(a) -MB) plot to the PLIP of compounds was examined. This plot was unable to predict the PLIP of zwitterions. In order to improve its predictability, the net charge of a given molecule (NC) was introduced instead of pK(a) - MB, since the NC corresponds directly to the ionization state of compounds in the organelles. Compounds with high ClogP (> 1) and high NC (1< or =NC< or =2) tended to be positive. This finding was also confirmed using 30 additional validation set compounds obtained from the literature. The ClogP - NC plot differentiated positive and negative compounds with more than 98% accuracy (62/63), indicating its usefulness in drug discovery.
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Abstract
The alveolar macrophage is the principal component of the defense mechanisms of the lung. As a result, alterations in its function can predispose the host organism to pulmonary disease or damage. This cell shows toxic responses to a wide variety of chemicals which are delivered to the lungs by either inhalation or via the systemic circulation. In this regard, this review will focus on the effects of a group of cationic amphiphilic drugs which when administered to humans and animals causes a lysosomal storage disorder of lipids, principally phospholipids, in alveolar macrophages. The susceptibility to the disorder is species-dependent and can be induced in fetal, neonatal and adult animals. Evidence exists that the accumulation of lipids within the cells occurs as a result of an impairment in lipid catabolism, however, not all of the available data are consistent with this theory. In light of this, other mechanisms to explain the etiology of this lipidosis are discussed. Associated with the increase in lipid content within the cell, striking morphological, biochemical and functional changes occur to the alveolar macrophage. Available data indicate that afflicted cells have an increased phagocytic activity and exhibit enhanced killing of one strain of bacteria. While these data suggest an enhancement in certain cellular functions, inadequate information presently exists to allow conclusions to be drawn concerning the consequences of this disorder.
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Kramer JK, Mahadevan S, Hunt JR, Sauer FD, Corner AH, Charlton KM. Growth rate, lipid composition, metabolism and myocardial lesions of rats fed rapeseed oils (Brassica campestris var. Arlo, Echo and Span, and B. napus var. Oro). J Nutr 1973; 103:1696-708. [PMID: 4752972 DOI: 10.1093/jn/103.12.1696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
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Zheng N, Zhang X, Rosania GR. Effect of phospholipidosis on the cellular pharmacokinetics of chloroquine. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2011; 336:661-71. [PMID: 21156819 PMCID: PMC3061524 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.110.175679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2010] [Accepted: 12/13/2010] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
In vivo, the weakly basic, lipophilic drug chloroquine (CQ) accumulates in the kidney to concentrations more than a thousand-fold greater than those in plasma. To study the cellular pharmacokinetics of chloroquine in cells derived from the distal tubule, Madin-Darby canine kidney cells were incubated with CQ under various conditions. CQ progressively accumulated without exhibiting steady-state behavior. Experiments failed to yield evidence that known active transport mechanisms mediated CQ uptake at the plasma membrane. CQ induced a phospholipidosis-like phenotype, characterized by the appearance of numerous multivesicular and multilamellar bodies (MLBs/MVBs) within the lumen of expanded cytoplasmic vesicles. Other induced phenotypic changes including changes in the volume and pH of acidic organelles were measured, and the integrated effects of all these changes were computationally modeled to establish their impact on intracellular CQ mass accumulation. Based on the passive transport behavior of CQ, the measured phenotypic changes fully accounted for the continuous, nonsteady-state CQ accumulation kinetics. Consistent with the simulation results, Raman confocal microscopy of live cells confirmed that CQ became highly concentrated within induced, expanded cytoplasmic vesicles that contained multiple MLBs/MVBs. Progressive CQ accumulation was increased by sucrose, a compound that stimulated the phospholipidosis-like phenotype, and was decreased by bafilomycin A1, a compound that inhibited this phenotype. Thus, phospholipidosis-associated changes in organelle structure and intracellular membrane content can exert a major influence on the local bioaccumulation and biodistribution of drugs.
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Bedrossian CW, Warren CJ, Ohar J, Bhan R. Amiodarone pulmonary toxicity: cytopathology, ultrastructure, and immunocytochemistry. Ann Diagn Pathol 1997; 1:47-56. [PMID: 9869825 DOI: 10.1016/s1092-9134(97)80008-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
One hundred ninety cardiac patients were prospectively enrolled in an amiodarone protocol. Over a 10-year period, 16 patients developed new or progressive respiratory symptoms while taking amiodarone. These symptoms included dyspnea associated with abnormal chest radiographs or new or worsening abnormalities on pulmonary function testing. Specimens for microscopic examination were obtained by fiberoptic bronchoscopy with transbronchial lung biopsy (TBB), bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL), open lung biopsy (OLB), or autopsy. Large foamy macrophages with characteristic lamellated cytoplasmic inclusions were noted in all specimens, regardless of other evidence of pulmonary toxicity, suggesting that foamy macrophages represent a routine drug effect. Foamy macrophages were not present in BAL specimens from 53 normal controls and were rarely seen in specimens from 27 patients who had other interstitial lung diseases. When present, the foamy macrophages were less prominent than those seen in specimens from patients receiving amiodarone. Fibrosis was noted in 11 of 16 histological specimens, whereas type II-cell-hyperplasia was observed in 7 of the 16 specimens. Four of the 16 patients with respiratory symptoms died, and their autopsy revealed a combination of foamy macrophages with fibrosis and type II cell hyperplasia reflective of amiodarone pulmonary toxicity. Hyperplastic type II cells were not found in the absence of fibrosis. Immunocytochemistry allowed differentiation between foamy macrophages and type II cells and represents a useful tool for future investigations of the pathogenesis of amiodarone-induced pulmonary disease.
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Lüllmann Rauch R, Reil GH. Chlorphentermine-induced lipidosislike ultrastructural alterations in lungs and adrenal glands of several species. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1974; 30:408-21. [PMID: 4141139 DOI: 10.1016/0041-008x(74)90263-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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Comparative Study |
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