Oncogene-induced senescence as an initial barrier in lymphoma development

Acute induction of oncogenic Ras provokes cellular senescence involving the retinoblastoma (Rb) pathway, but the tumour suppressive potential of senescence in vivo remains elusive. Recently, Rb-mediated silencing of growth-promoting genes by heterochromatin formation associated with methylation of histone H3 lysine 9 (H3K9me) was identified as a critical feature of cellular senescence, which may depend on the histone methyltransferase Suv39h1. Here we show that Emicro-N-Ras transgenic mice harbouring targeted heterozygous lesions at the Suv39h1, or the p53 locus for comparison, succumb to invasive T-cell lymphomas that lack expression of Suv39h1 or p53, respectively. By contrast, most N-Ras-transgenic wild-type ('control') animals develop a non-lymphoid neoplasia significantly later. Proliferation of primary lymphocytes is directly stalled by a Suv39h1-dependent, H3K9me-related senescent growth arrest in response to oncogenic Ras, thereby cancelling lymphomagenesis at an initial step. Suv39h1-deficient lymphoma cells grow rapidly but, unlike p53-deficient cells, remain highly susceptible to adriamycin-induced apoptosis. In contrast, only control, but not Suv39h1-deficient or p53-deficient, lymphomas senesce after drug therapy when apoptosis is blocked. These results identify H3K9me-mediated senescence as a novel Suv39h1-dependent tumour suppressor mechanism whose inactivation permits the formation of aggressive but apoptosis-competent lymphomas in response to oncogenic Ras.

Promoter-bound METTL3 maintains myeloid leukaemia by m6A-dependent translation control

N6-methyladenosine (m6A) is an abundant internal RNA modification in both coding and non-coding RNAs that is catalysed by the METTL3-METTL14 methyltransferase complex. However, the specific role of these enzymes in cancer is still largely unknown. Here we define a pathway that is specific for METTL3 and is implicated in the maintenance of a leukaemic state. We identify METTL3 as an essential gene for growth of acute myeloid leukaemia cells in two distinct genetic screens. Downregulation of METTL3 results in cell cycle arrest, differentiation of leukaemic cells and failure to establish leukaemia in immunodeficient mice. We show that METTL3, independently of METTL14, associates with chromatin and localizes to the transcriptional start sites of active genes. The vast majority of these genes have the CAATT-box binding protein CEBPZ present at the transcriptional start site, and this is required for recruitment of METTL3 to chromatin. Promoter-bound METTL3 induces m6A modification within the coding region of the associated mRNA transcript, and enhances its translation by relieving ribosome stalling. We show that genes regulated by METTL3 in this way are necessary for acute myeloid leukaemia. Together, these data define METTL3 as a regulator of a chromatin-based pathway that is necessary for maintenance of the leukaemic state and identify this enzyme as a potential therapeutic target for acute myeloid leukaemia.

Methylated lysine 79 of histone H3 targets 53BP1 to DNA double-strand breaks

The mechanisms by which eukaryotic cells sense DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) in order to initiate checkpoint responses are poorly understood. 53BP1 is a conserved checkpoint protein with properties of a DNA DSB sensor. Here, we solved the structure of the domain of 53BP1 that recruits it to sites of DSBs. This domain consists of two tandem tudor folds with a deep pocket at their interface formed by residues conserved in the budding yeast Rad9 and fission yeast Rhp9/Crb2 orthologues. In vitro, the 53BP1 tandem tudor domain bound histone H3 methylated on Lys 79 using residues that form the walls of the pocket; these residues were also required for recruitment of 53BP1 to DSBs. Suppression of DOT1L, the enzyme that methylates Lys 79 of histone H3, also inhibited recruitment of 53BP1 to DSBs. Because methylation of histone H3 Lys 79 was unaltered in response to DNA damage, we propose that 53BP1 senses DSBs indirectly through changes in higher-order chromatin structure that expose the 53BP1 binding site.

Molecular diagnosis of thiopurine S-methyltransferase deficiency: genetic basis for azathioprine and mercaptopurine intolerance

BACKGROUND

Thiopurine S-methyltransferase (TPMT) catalyzes the S-methylation (that is, inactivation) of mercaptopurine, azathioprine, and thioguanine and exhibits genetic polymorphism. About 10% of patients have intermediate TPMT activity because of heterozygosity, and about 1 in 300 inherit TPMT deficiency as an autosomal recessive trait. If they receive standard doses of thiopurine medications (for example, 75 mg/m2 body surface area per day), TPMT-deficient patients accumulate excessive thioguanine nucleotides in hematopoietic tissues, which leads to severe and possibly fatal myelosuppression.

OBJECTIVE

To elucidate the genetic basis and develop molecular methods for the diagnosis of TPMT deficiency and heterozygosity.

DESIGN

Diagnostic test evaluation.

SETTING

Research hospital.

PATIENTS

The TPMT phenotype was determined in 282 unrelated white persons, and TPMT genotype was determined in all persons who had intermediate TPMT activity (heterozygotes) and a randomly selected, equal number of persons who had high activity. In addition, genotype was determined in 6 TPMT-deficient patients.

MEASUREMENTS

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays were developed to detect the G238C transversion in TPMT*2 and the G460A and A719G transitions in TPMT*3 alleles. Radiochemical assay was used to measure TPMT activity. Mutations of TPMT were identified in genomic DNA, and the concordance of TPMT genotype and phenotype was determined.

RESULTS

21 patients who had a heterozygous phenotype were identified (7.4% of sample [95% CI, 4.7% to 11.2%]). TPMT*3A was the most prevalent mutant allele (18 of 21 mutant alleles in heterozygotes; 85%); TPMT*2 and TPMT*3C were more rare (about 5% each). All 6 patients who had TPMT deficiency had two mutant alleles, 20 of 21 patients (95% [CI, 76% to 99.9%]) who had intermediate TPMT activity had one mutant allele, and 21 of 21 patients (100% [CI, 83% to 100%]) who had high activity had no known TPMT mutation. Detection of TPMT mutations in genomic DNA by PCR coincided perfectly with genotypes detected by complementary DNA sequencing.

CONCLUSIONS

The major inactivating mutations at the human TPMT locus have been identified and can be reliably detected by PCR-based methods, which show an excellent concordance between genotype and phenotype. The detection of TPMT mutations provides a molecular diagnostic method for prospectively identifying TPMT-deficient and heterozygous patients.

m6A facilitates hippocampus-dependent learning and memory through YTHDF1

N6-methyladenosine (m6A), the most prevalent internal RNA modification on mammalian messenger RNAs, regulates the fates and functions of modified transcripts through m6A-specific binding proteins1-5. In the nervous system, m6A is abundant and modulates various neural functions6-11. Whereas m6A marks groups of mRNAs for coordinated degradation in various physiological processes12-15, the relevance of m6A for mRNA translation in vivo remains largely unknown. Here we show that, through its binding protein YTHDF1, m6A promotes protein translation of target transcripts in response to neuronal stimuli in the adult mouse hippocampus, thereby facilitating learning and memory. Mice with genetic deletion of Ythdf1 show learning and memory defects as well as impaired hippocampal synaptic transmission and long-term potentiation. Re-expression of YTHDF1 in the hippocampus of adult Ythdf1-knockout mice rescues the behavioural and synaptic defects, whereas hippocampus-specific acute knockdown of Ythdf1 or Mettl3, which encodes the catalytic component of the m6A methyltransferase complex, recapitulates the hippocampal deficiency. Transcriptome-wide mapping of YTHDF1-binding sites and m6A sites on hippocampal mRNAs identified key neuronal genes. Nascent protein labelling and tether reporter assays in hippocampal neurons showed that YTHDF1 enhances protein synthesis in a neuronal-stimulus-dependent manner. In summary, YTHDF1 facilitates translation of m6A-methylated neuronal mRNAs in response to neuronal stimulation, and this process contributes to learning and memory.

Stem cell function and stress response are controlled by protein synthesis

Whether protein synthesis and cellular stress response pathways interact to control stem cell function is currently unknown. Here we show that mouse skin stem cells synthesize less protein than their immediate progenitors in vivo, even when forced to proliferate. Our analyses reveal that activation of stress response pathways drives both a global reduction of protein synthesis and altered translational programmes that together promote stem cell functions and tumorigenesis. Mechanistically, we show that inhibition of post-transcriptional cytosine-5 methylation locks tumour-initiating cells in this distinct translational inhibition programme. Paradoxically, this inhibition renders stem cells hypersensitive to cytotoxic stress, as tumour regeneration after treatment with 5-fluorouracil is blocked. Thus, stem cells must revoke translation inhibition pathways to regenerate a tissue or tumour.

Epitranscriptomic m6A Regulation of Axon Regeneration in the Adult Mammalian Nervous System

N⁶-methyladenosine (m⁶A) affects multiple aspects of mRNA metabolism and regulates developmental transitions by promoting mRNA decay. Little is known about the role of m⁶A in the adult mammalian nervous system. Here we report that sciatic nerve lesion elevates levels of m⁶A-tagged transcripts encoding many regeneration-associated genes and protein translation machinery components in the adult mouse dorsal root ganglion (DRG). Single-base resolution m⁶A-CLIP mapping further reveals a dynamic m⁶A landscape in the adult DRG upon injury. Loss of either m⁶A methyltransferase complex component Mettl14 or m⁶A-binding protein Ythdf1 globally attenuates injury-induced protein translation in adult DRGs and reduces functional axon regeneration in the peripheral nervous system in vivo. Furthermore, Pten deletion-induced axon regeneration of retinal ganglion neurons in the adult central nervous system is attenuated upon Mettl14 knockdown. Our study reveals a critical epitranscriptomic mechanism in promoting injury-induced protein synthesis and axon regeneration in the adult mammalian nervous system.

Preponderance of thiopurine S-methyltransferase deficiency and heterozygosity among patients intolerant to mercaptopurine or azathioprine

PURPOSE

To assess thiopurine S-methyltransferase (TPMT) phenotype and genotype in patients who were intolerant to treatment with mercaptopurine (MP) or azathioprine (AZA), and to evaluate their clinical management.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

TPMT phenotype and thiopurine metabolism were assessed in all patients referred between 1994 and 1999 for evaluation of excessive toxicity while receiving MP or AZA. TPMT activity was measured by radiochemical analysis, TPMT genotype was determined by mutation-specific polymerase chain reaction restriction fragment length polymorphism analyses for the TPMT*2, *3A, *3B, and *3C alleles, and thiopurine metabolites were measured by high-performance liquid chromatography.

RESULTS

Of 23 patients evaluated, six had TPMT deficiency (activity < 5 U/mL of packed RBCs [pRBCs]; homozygous mutant), nine had intermediate TPMT activity (5 to 13 U/mL of pRBCs; heterozygotes), and eight had high TPMT activity (> 13.5 U/mL of pRBCs; homozygous wildtype). The 65.2% frequency of TPMT-deficient and heterozygous individuals among these toxic patients is significantly greater than the expected 10% frequency in the general population (P <.001, chi(2)). TPMT phenotype and genotype were concordant in all TPMT-deficient and all homozygous-wildtype patients, whereas five patients with heterozygous phenotypes did not have a TPMT mutation detected. Before thiopurine dosage adjustments, TPMT-deficient patients experienced more frequent hospitalization, more platelet transfusions, and more missed doses of chemotherapy. Hematologic toxicity occurred in more than 90% of patients, whereas hepatotoxicity occurred in six patients (26%). Both patients who presented with only hepatic toxicity had a homozygous-wildtype TPMT phenotype. After adjustment of thiopurine dosages, the TPMT-deficient and heterozygous patients tolerated therapy without acute toxicity.

CONCLUSION

There is a significant (> six-fold) overrepresentation of TPMT deficiency or heterozygosity among patients developing dose-limiting hematopoietic toxicity from therapy containing thiopurines. However, with appropriate dosage adjustments, TPMT-deficient and heterozygous patients can be treated with thiopurines, without acute dose-limiting toxicity.

Histone H3-K9 methyltransferase ESET is essential for early development

Methylation of histone H3 at lysine 9 (H3-K9) mediates heterochromatin formation by forming a binding site for HP1 and also participates in silencing gene expression at euchromatic sites. ESET, G9a, SUV39-h1, SUV39-h2, and Eu-HMTase are histone methyltransferases that catalyze H3-K9 methylation in mammalian cells. Previous studies demonstrate that the SUV39-h proteins are preferentially targeted to the pericentric heterochromatin, and mice lacking both Suv39-h genes show cytogenetic abnormalities and an increased incidence of lymphoma. G9a methylates H3-K9 in euchromatin, and G9a null embryos die at 8.5 days postcoitum (dpc). G9a null embryo stem (ES) cells show altered DNA methylation in the Prader-Willi imprinted region and ectopic expression of the Mage genes. So far, an Eu-HMTase mouse knockout has not been reported. ESET catalyzes methylation of H3-K9 and localizes mainly in euchromatin. To investigate the in vivo function of Eset, we have generated an allele that lacks the entire pre- and post-SET domains and that expresses lacZ under the endogenous regulation of the Eset gene. We found that zygotic Eset expression begins at the blastocyst stage and is ubiquitous during postimplantation mouse development, while the maternal Eset transcripts are present in oocytes and persist throughout preimplantation development. The homozygous mutations of Eset resulted in peri-implantation lethality between 3.5 and 5.5 dpc. Blastocysts null for Eset were recovered but in less than Mendelian ratios. Upon culturing, 18 of 24 Eset(-/-) blastocysts showed defective growth of the inner cell mass and, in contrast to the approximately 65% recovery of wild-type and Eset(+/-) ES cells, no Eset(-/-) ES cell lines were obtained. Global H3-K9 trimethylation and DNA methylation at IAP repeats in Eset(-/-) blastocyst outgrowths were not dramatically altered. Together, these results suggest that Eset is required for peri-implantation development and the survival of ES cells.

Clinical pharmacology and pharmacogenetics of thiopurines

The thiopurine drugs-azathioprine (AZA), 6-mercaptopurine (6-MP), and thioguanine-are widely used to treat malignancies, rheumatic diseases, dermatologic conditions, inflammatory bowel disease, and solid organ transplant rejection. However, thiopurine drugs have a relatively narrow therapeutic index and are capable of causing life-threatening toxicity, most often myelosuppression. Thiopurine S-methyltransferase (TPMT; EC 2.1.1.67), an enzyme that catalyzes S-methylation of these drugs, exhibits a genetic polymorphism in 10% of Caucasians, with 1/300 individuals having complete deficiency. Patients with intermediate or deficient TPMT activity are at risk for excessive toxicity after receiving standard doses of thiopurine medications. This report reviews the recent advances in the knowledge of the mechanism of action as well as the molecular basis and interethnic variations of TPMT and inosine triphosphate pyrophosphatase (ITPase; EC 3.6.1.19), another enzyme implicated in thiopurine toxicity. In addition, an update on pharmacokinetics, metabolism, drug-drug interactions, safety, and tolerability of thiopurine drugs is provided.

Altered mercaptopurine metabolism, toxic effects, and dosage requirement in a thiopurine methyltransferase-deficient child with acute lymphocytic leukemia

Thiopurine methyltransferase deficiency, inherited as an autosomal codominant trait, is associated with aberrant mercaptopurine metabolism leading to excessive cellular accumulation of 6-thioguanine nucleotides, the active metabolites of mercaptopurine. We describe a case of severe thiopurine methyltransferase deficiency (activity less than 1 U/8 x 10(8) erythrocytes) in a young girl with acute lymphocytic leukemia. The level of 6-thioguanine nucleotide in the patient's erythrocytes was seven times the population median value, and she had intolerable hematologic toxic effects during postremission therapy with a standard dosage of mercaptopurine (75 mg/m2 per day). Subsequent therapy with 6% of this dosage (10 mg/m2 three times weekly) yielded erythrocytic 6-thioguanine nucleotide concentrations consistently above the population median but not associated with prohibitively toxic effects. This case demonstrates that thiopurine methyltransferase deficiency does not absolutely contraindicate mercaptopurine therapy, and it also provides insight into the mechanism of excessive toxic effects of mercaptopurine sometimes observed in children with acute lymphocytic leukemia.

The thiopurine S-methyltransferase gene locus -- implications for clinical pharmacogenomics

Thiopurine methyltransferase catalyzes the S-methylation of azathioprine (AZA), 6-mercapto-purine (6-MP) and thioguanine, medications widely used to treat malignancies, rheumatic diseases, dermatologic conditions, inflammatory bowel disease and solid organ transplant rejection. TPMT activity exhibits a genetic polymorphism in 10% of Caucasians, with 1/300 individuals having complete deficiency. Patients with intermediate or deficient TPMT activity are at risk for excessive toxicity, including fatal myelosuppression, after receiving standard doses of thiopurine medications. The molecular basis for low TPMT activity has been elucidated, leading to the development of assays for the three signature mutations, which account for the majority of mutant alleles. TPMT genotype is correlated with erythrocyte and leukemia blast cell TPMT activity and associated with a risk of toxicity after thiopurine therapy. Recent studies defined target starting doses for mercaptopurine based on TPMT genotypes. This polymorphism is one of the best models for the translation of genomic information to guide patient therapeutics.

Biochemical and evolutionary significance of phospholipid methylation

All nucleated mammalian cells synthesize phosphatidylcholine from choline via the CDP-choline pathway. Hepatocytes have a second pathway for the synthesis of phosphatidylcholine, a stepwise methylation of phosphatidylethanolamine, catalyzed by phosphatidylethanolamine N-methyltransferase and encoded by the Pempt gene. We report that when Pempt-deficient mice were fed a choline-deficient diet for 3 days, severe liver pathology occurred apparently due to a lack of phosphatidylcholine biosynthesis. The hepatic concentration of phosphatidylcholine decreased by 50% compared with wild type mice on the diet. The levels of plasma triacylglycerols and cholesterol were decreased by greater than 90% in the Pempt-deficient mice. We suggest that the Pempt gene has been maintained during evolution to provide phosphatidylcholine when dietary choline is insufficient, as might occur during starvation or pregnancy.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis controls host innate immune activation through cyclopropane modification of a glycolipid effector molecule

Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) infection remains a global health crisis. Recent genetic evidence implicates specific cell envelope lipids in Mtb pathogenesis, but it is unclear whether these cell envelope compounds affect pathogenesis through a structural role in the cell wall or as pathogenesis effectors that interact directly with host cells. Here we show that cyclopropane modification of the Mtb cell envelope glycolipid trehalose dimycolate (TDM) is critical for Mtb growth during the first week of infection in mice. In addition, TDM modification by the cyclopropane synthase pcaA was both necessary and sufficient for proinflammatory activation of macrophages during early infection. Purified TDM isolated from a cyclopropane-deficient pcaA mutant was hypoinflammatory for macrophages and induced less severe granulomatous inflammation in mice, demonstrating that the fine structure of this glycolipid was critical to its proinflammatory activity. These results established the fine structure of lipids contained in the Mtb cell envelope as direct effectors of pathogenesis and identified temporal control of host immune activation through cyclopropane modification of TDM as a critical pathogenic strategy of Mtb.

Genetic suppression and phenotypic masking of a Myxococcus xanthus frzF- defect

An insertion of transposon Tn5-lac, omega 4519, generates a lacZ fusion with a Myxococcus xanthus promoter expressed during both vegetative growth and development. Sequence analysis of the junction of omega 4519 with M. xanthus DNA shows that the insertion is in frzF, a homologue of cheR from Salmonella typhimurium. When frzF- (or frzCD-) cells are starved for nutrients at modest densities, they aggregate to form a radial pattern and produce fewer than 1% of the wild-type complement of spores. At higher densities, frzF::omega 4519 cells form 'frizzy' aggregates and produce 80-90% of the wild-type complement of spores. In contrast, when cells with both a frzF- (or frzCD-) and an sglA1 mutation are allowed to develop at either low or high cell densities, they produce frizzy aggregates containing a near wild-type complement of heat-resistant spores. In addition to suppressing the density dependence of fruiting-body morphogenesis, the sglA1 mutation also suppresses the sporulation defect caused by two different frzF- mutations and a frzCD- mutation. In contrast, a mutation in a different S motility gene, sglG1, does not suppress the frz- mutations. Thus, the suppression of frz- mutations by sgl- mutations is allele-specific, and depends on the sgl allele, but not the frz allele. Because the phenotypes of frz- mutations have been determined in a (suppressing) sglA1 genetic background, the frz genes may play more central roles in development than initially recognized.

Azathioprine and 6-mercaptopurine pharmacogenetics and metabolite monitoring in inflammatory bowel disease

The thiopurine drugs azathioprine and 6-mercaptopurine (6-MP) are well-established in the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). However, there is a wide inter- and intra-patient variation in the concentrations of active and toxic metabolites due to their complex metabolism and genetic polymorphisms in metabolizing enzymes. Serious drug toxicity leads to cessation of therapy in 9-25% of patients, and there is failure to achieve efficacy in approximately 15% of cases. Advances in the understanding of thiopurine drug metabolism have led to new genetic and metabolite tests to help clinicians optimize thiopurine use. Thiopurine methyltransferase (TPMT) enzyme activity can predict life-threatening myelotoxicity in the one in 300 patients who are TPMT-deficient. However, myelotoxicity can also occur in the presence of normal TPMT activity so blood count monitoring should remain standard practice. TPMT testing may also aid in dose individualization. 6-Thioguanine nucleotides (6-TGN) are thought to be the predominant active metabolites of the thiopurines. 6-thioguanine nucleotide concentration is correlated with bone marrow toxicity and may also correlate with efficacy in IBD. Measurement of 6-TGN and 6-methylmercaptopurine (6-MMP) concentration is most useful in determining why a patient is not responding to a standard dose of a thiopurine drug and may help in avoiding myelosuppression. The ratio of these metabolites can help distinguish non-compliance, under-dosing, thiopurine-resistant and thiopurine-refractory disease. Some of these investigations are entering routine clinical practice but more research is required to determine their optimal use in patients with IBD.

Heterochromatic genome stability requires regulators of histone H3 K9 methylation

Heterochromatin contains many repetitive DNA elements and few protein-encoding genes, yet it is essential for chromosome organization and inheritance. Here, we show that Drosophila that lack the Su(var)3-9 H3K9 methyltransferase display significantly elevated frequencies of spontaneous DNA damage in heterochromatin, in both somatic and germ-line cells. Accumulated DNA damage in these mutants correlates with chromosomal defects, such as translocations and loss of heterozygosity. DNA repair and mitotic checkpoints are also activated in mutant animals and are required for their viability. Similar effects of lower magnitude were observed in animals that lack the RNA interference pathway component Dcr2. These results suggest that the H3K9 methylation and RNAi pathways ensure heterochromatin stability.

Creatine replacement therapy in guanidinoacetate methyltransferase deficiency, a novel inborn error of metabolism

BACKGROUND

The creatine/creatine-phosphate system is essential for the storage and transmission of phosphate-bound energy in muscle and brain. In infants, inefficiency or failure of this metabolic pathway can impair the development of motor control and mentation.

METHODS

We studied and treated an infant with extrapyramidal signs who was shown--by assay for urinary creatinine and by analysis of brain metabolites with use of nuclear magnetic resonance spectra--to have depletion of body and brain creatine, due to inborn deficiency of guanidinoacetate methyltransferase (GAMT).

FINDINGS

Long-term oral administration of creatine-monohydrate (4-8 g per day) to this index patient resulted in substantial clinical improvement, disappearance of magnetic resonance (MRI) signal abnormalities in the globus pallidus, and normalisation of slow background activity on the electroencephalogram (EEG). During the 25-month treatment period, both brain and total body creatine concentrations became normal.

INTERPRETATION

Oral creatine replacement has proved to be effective in one child with an inborn error of GAMT. It may well be effective in the treatment of other disorders of creatine synthesis.

TPMT in the treatment of Crohn's disease with azathioprine

Azathioprine induced profound myelosuppression linked to TPMT deficiency has now been documented in many patient groups, including those with Crohn's disease. At the start of azathioprine or mercaptopurine therapy, measurement of TPMT activity has a role in identifying the 1 in 300 patients who are at risk of severe myelosuppression when treated with standard thiopurine dosages. During the initial months of azathioprine therapy a knowledge of TPMT status warns of early bone marrow toxicity. In patients established on azathioprine these is no clear evidence to suggest that TPMT is predictive of clinical response or drug toxicity, indicating a role for TPMT in the prediction of early events rather than long term control. In patients with Crohn's disease on long term azathioprine therapy, it is clear that myelosuppression, particularly leucopenia, is caused by other factors in addition to variable TPMT activity and therefore monitoring of blood cell counts throughout treatment is essential.

A CAF-1 dependent pool of HP1 during heterochromatin duplication

To investigate how the complex organization of heterochromatin is reproduced at each replication cycle, we examined the fate of HP1-rich pericentric domains in mouse cells. We find that replication occurs mainly at the surface of these domains where both PCNA and chromatin assembly factor 1 (CAF-1) are located. Pulse-chase experiments combined with high-resolution analysis and 3D modeling show that within 90 min newly replicated DNA become internalized inside the domain. Remarkably, during this time period, a specific subset of HP1 molecules (alpha and gamma) coinciding with CAF-1 and replicative sites is resistant to RNase treatment. Furthermore, these replication-associated HP1 molecules are detected in Suv39 knockout cells, which otherwise lack stable HP1 staining at pericentric heterochromatin. This replicative pool of HP1 molecules disappears completely following p150CAF-1 siRNA treatment. We conclude that during replication, the interaction of HP1 with p150CAF-1 is essential to promote delivery of HP1 molecules to heterochromatic sites, where they are subsequently retained by further interactions with methylated H3-K9 and RNA.

Depletion of O6-alkylguanine-DNA alkyltransferase correlates with potentiation of temozolomide and CCNU toxicity in human tumour cells

Temozolomide (8-carbamoyl-3-methylimidazo[5,1-d]-1,2,3,5-tetrazin-4-(3H)-one) has shown promising activity in Phase I trials against some brain (glioma) and skin (melanoma, mycosis fungoides) cancers. Temozolomide and lomustine (CCNU) showed parallel toxicity in seven human tumour cell lines and this generally correlated (correlation coefficients 0.87 and 0.92 respectively) with the level of expression of the DNA repair protein O6-alkylguanine-DNA alkyltransferase (ATase, EC 2.1.1.63). Pretreating cells with the ATase inhibitor, O6-benzylguanine (BG), potentiated cytotoxicity to a similar degree with both drugs, but did not sensitise a cell line (ZR-75-1) expressing very low levels of this protein. When BG pretreatment was combined with repeat doses of temozolomide a dramatic potentiation (300 fold) was seen in MAWI cells, which express high levels of ATase, but not in a cell line (U373) expressing lower levels of ATase. [14C]-labelled temozolomide uptake was similar in sensitive and resistant lines. Human ATase-cDNA transfected xeroderma pigmentosum (XP) fibroblasts were more resistant than XP control cells to temozolomide and the related chloroethylating agent mitozolomide and although BG completely suppressed ATase activity in these cells, resistance was still greater than in control cells.

The role of DIF-1 signaling in Dictyostelium development

We have constructed a mutant blocked in the biosynthesis of DIF-1, a chlorinated signal molecule proposed to induce differentiation of both major prestalk cell types formed during Dictyostelium development. Surprisingly, the mutant still forms slugs retaining one prestalk cell type, the pstA cells, and can form mature stalk cells. However, the other major prestalk cell type, the pstO cells, is missing. Normal pstO cell differentiation and their patterning in the slug are restored by development on a uniform concentration of DIF-1. We conclude that pstO and pstA cells are in fact induced by separate signals and that DIF-1 is the pstO inducer. Positional information, in the form of DIF-1 gradients, is evidently not required for pstO cell induction.

METTL3-mediated m6A RNA methylation promotes the anti-tumour immunity of natural killer cells

Natural killer (NK) cells exert critical roles in anti-tumor immunity but how their functions are regulated by epitranscriptional modification (e.g., N6-methyladenosine (m6A) methylation) is unclear. Here we report decreased expression of the m6A "writer" METTL3 in tumor-infiltrating NK cells, and a positive correlation between protein expression levels of METTL3 and effector molecules in NK cells. Deletion of Mettl3 in NK cells alters the homeostasis of NK cells and inhibits NK cell infiltration and function in the tumor microenvironment, leading to accelerated tumor development and shortened survival in mice. The gene encoding SHP-2 is m6A modified, and its protein expression is decreased in METTL3-deficient NK cells. Reduced SHP-2 activity renders NK cells hyporesponsive to IL-15, which is associated with suppressed activation of the AKT and MAPK signaling pathway in METTL3-deficient NK cells. These findings show that m6A methylation safeguards the homeostasis and tumor immunosurveillance function of NK cells.

Congenital thiopurine methyltransferase deficiency and 6-mercaptopurine toxicity during treatment for acute lymphoblastic leukaemia

Two children with acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL) taking daily 6-mercaptopurine as part of a national UK therapeutic trial repeatedly developed profound myelosuppression on 25% of the standard protocol dose. Both were found to have undetectable intracellular activity of thiopurine methyltransferase (TPMT), an enzyme controlling one of the major alternative catabolic pathways of 6-mercaptopurine, and both produced higher concentrations of cytotoxic drug metabolites at 10-25% of the protocol dose than other patients taking 100%. It is supposed that these patients represent the 0.33% of the normal population constitutionally lacking TPMT. It is important to recognise such individuals both to avoid fatal bone marrow failure through inadvertent overdosage, and to be reassured that an adequate drug effect can be achieved at around 10% of the standard dose.