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Bulfield G, Siller WG, Wight PA, Moore KJ. X chromosome-linked muscular dystrophy (mdx) in the mouse. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1984; 81:1189-92. [PMID: 6583703 PMCID: PMC344791 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.81.4.1189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1272] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
An X chromosome-linked mouse mutant (gene symbol, mdx) has been found that has elevated plasma levels of muscle creatine kinase and pyruvate kinase and exhibits histological lesions characteristic of muscular dystrophy. The mutants show mild clinical symptoms and are viable and fertile. Linkage analysis with four X chromosome loci indicates that mdx maps in the Hq Bpa region of the mouse X chromosome. This gives a gene order of mdx-Tfm-Pgk-1-Ags, the same as for the equivalent genes on the human X chromosome.
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research-article |
41 |
1272 |
2
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Petrof BJ, Shrager JB, Stedman HH, Kelly AM, Sweeney HL. Dystrophin protects the sarcolemma from stresses developed during muscle contraction. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1993; 90:3710-4. [PMID: 8475120 PMCID: PMC46371 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.90.8.3710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1129] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
The protein dystrophin, normally found on the cytoplasmic surface of skeletal muscle cell membranes, is absent in patients with Duchenne muscular dystrophy as well as mdx (X-linked muscular dystrophy) mice. Although its primary structure has been determined, the precise functional role of dystrophin remains the subject of speculation. In the present study, we demonstrate that dystrophin-deficient muscle fibers of the mdx mouse exhibit an increased susceptibility to contraction-induced sarcolemmal rupture. The level of sarcolemmal damage is directly correlated with the magnitude of mechanical stress placed upon the membrane during contraction rather than the number of activations of the muscle. These findings strongly support the proposition that the primary function of dystrophin is to provide mechanical reinforcement to the sarcolemma and thereby protect it from the membrane stresses developed during muscle contraction. Furthermore, the methodology used in this study should prove useful in assessing the efficacy of dystrophin gene therapy in the mdx mouse.
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research-article |
32 |
1129 |
3
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Gussoni E, Soneoka Y, Strickland CD, Buzney EA, Khan MK, Flint AF, Kunkel LM, Mulligan RC. Dystrophin expression in the mdx mouse restored by stem cell transplantation. Nature 1999; 401:390-4. [PMID: 10517639 DOI: 10.1038/43919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1004] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
The development of cell or gene therapies for diseases involving cells that are widely distributed throughout the body has been severely hampered by the inability to achieve the disseminated delivery of cells or genes to the affected tissues or organ. Here we report the results of bone marrow transplantation studies in the mdx mouse, an animal model of Duchenne's muscular dystrophy, which indicate that the intravenous injection of either normal haematopoietic stem cells or a novel population of muscle-derived stem cells into irradiated animals results in the reconstitution of the haematopoietic compartment of the transplanted recipients, the incorporation of donor-derived nuclei into muscle, and the partial restoration of dystrophin expression in the affected muscle. These results suggest that the transplantation of different stem cell populations, using the procedures of bone marrow transplantation, might provide an unanticipated avenue for treating muscular dystrophy as well as other diseases where the systemic delivery of therapeutic cells to sites throughout the body is critical. Our studies also suggest that the inherent developmental potential of stem cells isolated from diverse tissues or organs may be more similar than previously anticipated.
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26 |
1004 |
4
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Sicinski P, Geng Y, Ryder-Cook AS, Barnard EA, Darlison MG, Barnard PJ. The molecular basis of muscular dystrophy in the mdx mouse: a point mutation. Science 1989; 244:1578-80. [PMID: 2662404 DOI: 10.1126/science.2662404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 947] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
The mdx mouse is an X-linked myopathic mutant, an animal model for human Duchenne muscular dystrophy. In both mouse and man the mutations lie within the dystrophin gene, but the phenotypic differences of the disease in the two species confer much interest on the molecular basis of the mdx mutation. The complementary DNA for mouse dystrophin has been cloned, and the sequence has been used in the polymerase chain reaction to amplify normal and mdx dystrophin transcripts in the area of the mdx mutation. Sequence analysis of the amplification products showed that the mdx mouse has a single base substitution within an exon, which causes premature termination of the polypeptide chain.
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Comparative Study |
36 |
947 |
5
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Partridge TA, Morgan JE, Coulton GR, Hoffman EP, Kunkel LM. Conversion of mdx myofibres from dystrophin-negative to -positive by injection of normal myoblasts. Nature 1989; 337:176-9. [PMID: 2643055 DOI: 10.1038/337176a0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 634] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
An important corollary to the recent advances in our understanding of the primary cause of Duchenne muscular dystrophy, is the validation of genuine genetic homologues as animal models of the disease in which potential therapies can be tested. The persistent skeletal muscle necrosis that characterizes human Duchenne muscular dystrophy is also seen in the mdx mouse and is, in both, a consequence of a deficiency of dystrophin, probably within the muscle fibres themselves. As injected muscle precursor cells of one genotype can fuse with host muscle fibres of a different genotype and express the donor genes, we decided to test grafts of normal muscle precursor cells to see if they could induce synthesis of dystrophin in innately dystrophin-deficient mdx muscle fibres. We show that injected normal muscle precursor cells can fuse with pre-existing or regenerating mdx muscle fibres to render many of these fibres dystrophin-positive and so to partially or wholly rescue them from their biochemical defect.
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36 |
634 |
6
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Review |
30 |
604 |
7
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Tinsley J, Deconinck N, Fisher R, Kahn D, Phelps S, Gillis JM, Davies K. Expression of full-length utrophin prevents muscular dystrophy in mdx mice. Nat Med 1998; 4:1441-4. [PMID: 9846586 DOI: 10.1038/4033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 462] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a lethal, progressive muscle wasting disease caused by a loss of sarcolemmal bound dystrophin, which results in the death of the muscle fiber leading to the gradual depletion of skeletal muscle. The molecular structure of dystrophin is very similar to that of the related protein utrophin. Utrophin is found in all tissues and is confined to the neuromuscular and myotendinous junctions in mature muscle. Sarcolemmal localization of a truncated utrophin transgene in the dystrophin-deficient mdx mouse significantly improves the dystrophic muscle phenotype. Therefore, up-regulation of utrophin by drug therapy is a plausible therapeutic approach in the treatment of DMD. Here we demonstrate that expression of full-length utrophin in mdx mice prevents the development of muscular dystrophy. We assessed muscle morphology, fiber regeneration and mechanical properties (force development and resistance to stretch) of mdx and transgenic mdx skeletal and diaphragm muscle. The utrophin levels required in muscle are significantly less than the normal endogenous utrophin levels seen in lung and kidney, and we provide evidence that the pathology depends on the amount of utrophin expression. These results also have important implications for DMD therapies in which utrophin replacement is achieved by delivery using exogenous vectors.
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27 |
462 |
8
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Barton-Davis ER, Cordier L, Shoturma DI, Leland SE, Sweeney HL. Aminoglycoside antibiotics restore dystrophin function to skeletal muscles of mdx mice. J Clin Invest 1999; 104:375-81. [PMID: 10449429 PMCID: PMC481050 DOI: 10.1172/jci7866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 410] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/1999] [Accepted: 07/16/1999] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is caused by mutations in the dystrophin gene, leading to the absence of the dystrophin protein in striated muscle. A significant number of these mutations are premature stop codons. On the basis of the observation that aminoglycoside treatment can suppress stop codons in cultured cells, we tested the effect of gentamicin on cultured muscle cells from the mdx mouse - an animal model for DMD that possesses a premature stop codon in the dystrophin gene. Exposure of mdx myotubes to gentamicin led to the expression and localization of dystrophin to the cell membrane. We then evaluated the effects of differing dosages of gentamicin on expression and functional protection of the muscles of mdx mice. We identified a treatment regimen that resulted in the presence of dystrophin in the cell membrane in all striated muscles examined and that provided functional protection against muscular injury. To our knowledge, our results are the first to demonstrate that aminoglycosides can suppress stop codons not only in vitro but also in vivo. Furthermore, these results raise the possibility of a novel treatment regimen for muscular dystrophy and other diseases caused by premature stop codon mutations. This treatment could prove effective in up to 15% of patients with DMD.
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research-article |
26 |
410 |
9
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Sacco A, Mourkioti F, Tran R, Choi J, Llewellyn M, Kraft P, Shkreli M, Delp S, Pomerantz JH, Artandi SE, Blau HM. Short telomeres and stem cell exhaustion model Duchenne muscular dystrophy in mdx/mTR mice. Cell 2010; 143:1059-71. [PMID: 21145579 PMCID: PMC3025608 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2010.11.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 386] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2010] [Revised: 09/18/2010] [Accepted: 11/02/2010] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
In Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), dystrophin mutation leads to progressive lethal skeletal muscle degeneration. For unknown reasons, dystrophin deficiency does not recapitulate DMD in mice (mdx), which have mild skeletal muscle defects and potent regenerative capacity. We postulated that human DMD progression is a consequence of loss of functional muscle stem cells (MuSC), and the mild mouse mdx phenotype results from greater MuSC reserve fueled by longer telomeres. We report that mdx mice lacking the RNA component of telomerase (mdx/mTR) have shortened telomeres in muscle cells and severe muscular dystrophy that progressively worsens with age. Muscle wasting severity parallels a decline in MuSC regenerative capacity and is ameliorated histologically by transplantation of wild-type MuSC. These data show that DMD progression results, in part, from a cell-autonomous failure of MuSC to maintain the damage-repair cycle initiated by dystrophin deficiency. The essential role of MuSC function has therapeutic implications for DMD.
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Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural |
15 |
386 |
10
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Alter J, Lou F, Rabinowitz A, Yin H, Rosenfeld J, Wilton SD, Partridge TA, Lu QL. Systemic delivery of morpholino oligonucleotide restores dystrophin expression bodywide and improves dystrophic pathology. Nat Med 2006; 12:175-7. [PMID: 16444267 DOI: 10.1038/nm1345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 385] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2005] [Accepted: 11/16/2005] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
For the majority of Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) mutations, antisense oligonucleotide (AON)-mediated exon skipping has the potential to restore a functional protein. Here we show that weekly intravenous injections of morpholino phosphorodiamidate (morpholino) AONs induce expression of functional levels of dystrophin in body-wide skeletal muscles of the dystrophic mdx mouse, with resulting improvement in muscle function. Although the level of dystrophin expression achieved varies considerably between muscles, antisense therapy may provide a realistic hope for the treatment of a majority of individuals with DMD.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Base Sequence
- Drug Administration Schedule
- Dystrophin/genetics
- Dystrophin/metabolism
- Gene Expression Regulation
- Genetic Therapy
- Humans
- Injections, Intravenous
- Male
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Inbred mdx
- Muscle, Skeletal
- Muscular Dystrophy, Animal/genetics
- Muscular Dystrophy, Animal/metabolism
- Muscular Dystrophy, Animal/pathology
- Muscular Dystrophy, Animal/therapy
- Muscular Dystrophy, Duchenne/genetics
- Muscular Dystrophy, Duchenne/therapy
- Oligodeoxyribonucleotides, Antisense/administration & dosage
- Oligodeoxyribonucleotides, Antisense/genetics
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19 |
385 |
11
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Abstract
The dystrophin glycoprotein complex (DGC) is a specialization of cardiac and skeletal muscle membrane. This large multicomponent complex has both mechanical stabilizing and signaling roles in mediating interactions between the cytoskeleton, membrane, and extracellular matrix. Dystrophin, the protein product of the Duchenne and X-linked dilated cardiomyopathy locus, links cytoskeletal and membrane elements. Mutations in additional DGC genes, the sarcoglycans, also lead to cardiomyopathy and muscular dystrophy. Animal models of DGC mutants have shown that destabilization of the DGC leads to membrane fragility and loss of membrane integrity, resulting in degeneration of skeletal muscle and cardiomyocytes. Vascular reactivity is altered in response to primary degeneration in striated myocytes and arises from a vascular smooth muscle cell-extrinsic mechanism.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Cardiomyopathy, Dilated/genetics
- Cardiomyopathy, Dilated/therapy
- Caveolin 3
- Caveolins/physiology
- Cricetinae
- Cytoskeletal Proteins/chemistry
- Cytoskeletal Proteins/genetics
- Cytoskeletal Proteins/physiology
- Dystroglycans
- Dystrophin/chemistry
- Dystrophin/genetics
- Dystrophin/physiology
- Genetic Therapy
- Humans
- Laminin/genetics
- Laminin/physiology
- Macromolecular Substances
- Membrane Glycoproteins/chemistry
- Membrane Glycoproteins/genetics
- Membrane Glycoproteins/physiology
- Mesocricetus
- Mice
- Models, Molecular
- Muscle, Skeletal/ultrastructure
- Muscular Dystrophy, Animal/genetics
- Muscular Dystrophy, Animal/metabolism
- Muscular Dystrophy, Animal/pathology
- Muscular Dystrophy, Duchenne/genetics
- Muscular Dystrophy, Duchenne/metabolism
- Muscular Dystrophy, Duchenne/pathology
- Muscular Dystrophy, Duchenne/therapy
- Myocardium/ultrastructure
- Neuropeptides/chemistry
- Neuropeptides/genetics
- Neuropeptides/physiology
- Nitric Oxide Synthase/physiology
- Nitric Oxide Synthase Type I
- Protein Conformation
- Protein Structure, Tertiary
- Sarcolemma/physiology
- Sarcolemma/ultrastructure
- Sarcomeres/chemistry
- Sarcomeres/ultrastructure
- Stem Cell Transplantation
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Review |
21 |
363 |
12
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Goyenvalle A, Vulin A, Fougerousse F, Leturcq F, Kaplan JC, Garcia L, Danos O. Rescue of Dystrophic Muscle Through U7 snRNA-Mediated Exon Skipping. Science 2004; 306:1796-9. [PMID: 15528407 DOI: 10.1126/science.1104297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 358] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Most mutations in the dystrophin gene create a frameshift or a stop in the mRNA and are associated with severe Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Exon skipping that naturally occurs at low frequency sometimes eliminates the mutation and leads to the production of a rescued protein. We have achieved persistent exon skipping that removes the mutated exon on the dystrophin messenger mRNA of the mdx mouse, by a single administration of an AAV vector expressing antisense sequences linked to a modified U7 small nuclear RNA. We report the sustained production of functional dystrophin at physiological levels in entire groups of muscles and the correction of the muscular dystrophy.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Dependovirus/genetics
- Dystrophin/genetics
- Dystrophin/metabolism
- Exons
- Genetic Therapy
- Genetic Vectors
- Introns
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred mdx
- Muscle Contraction
- Muscle Fibers, Skeletal/immunology
- Muscle Fibers, Skeletal/pathology
- Muscle, Skeletal/metabolism
- Muscle, Skeletal/pathology
- Muscle, Skeletal/physiology
- Muscular Dystrophy, Animal/genetics
- Muscular Dystrophy, Animal/pathology
- Muscular Dystrophy, Animal/physiopathology
- Muscular Dystrophy, Animal/therapy
- Muscular Dystrophy, Duchenne/genetics
- Muscular Dystrophy, Duchenne/pathology
- Muscular Dystrophy, Duchenne/physiopathology
- Muscular Dystrophy, Duchenne/therapy
- Mutation
- Oligonucleotides, Antisense/pharmacology
- RNA Splicing
- RNA, Messenger/genetics
- RNA, Messenger/metabolism
- RNA, Small Nuclear/genetics
- RNA, Small Nuclear/metabolism
- Transfection
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21 |
358 |
13
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Galbiati F, Engelman JA, Volonte D, Zhang XL, Minetti C, Li M, Hou H, Kneitz B, Edelmann W, Lisanti MP. Caveolin-3 null mice show a loss of caveolae, changes in the microdomain distribution of the dystrophin-glycoprotein complex, and t-tubule abnormalities. J Biol Chem 2001; 276:21425-33. [PMID: 11259414 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m100828200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 340] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Caveolin-3, a muscle-specific caveolin-related protein, is the principal structural protein of caveolae membrane domains in striated muscle cells. Recently, we identified a novel autosomal dominant form of limb-girdle muscular dystrophy (LGMD-1C) in humans that is due to mutations within the coding sequence of the human caveolin-3 gene (3p25). These LGMD-1C mutations lead to an approximately 95% reduction in caveolin-3 protein expression, i.e. a caveolin-3 deficiency. Here, we created a caveolin-3 null (CAV3 -/-) mouse model, using standard homologous recombination techniques, to mimic a caveolin-3 deficiency. We show that these mice lack caveolin-3 protein expression and sarcolemmal caveolae membranes. In addition, analysis of skeletal muscle tissue from these caveolin-3 null mice reveals: (i) mild myopathic changes; (ii) an exclusion of the dystrophin-glycoprotein complex from lipid raft domains; and (iii) abnormalities in the organization of the T-tubule system, with dilated and longitudinally oriented T-tubules. These results have clear mechanistic implications for understanding the pathogenesis of LGMD-1C at a molecular level.
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24 |
340 |
14
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Acsadi G, Dickson G, Love DR, Jani A, Walsh FS, Gurusinghe A, Wolff JA, Davies KE. Human dystrophin expression in mdx mice after intramuscular injection of DNA constructs. Nature 1991; 352:815-8. [PMID: 1881437 DOI: 10.1038/352815a0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 337] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Duchenne's muscular dystrophy (DMD), which affects one in 3,500 males, causes progressive myopathy of skeletal and cardiac muscles and premature death. One approach to treatment would be to introduce the normal dystrophin gene into diseased muscle cells. When pure plasmid DNA is injected into rodent skeletal or cardiac muscle, the cells express reporter genes. We now show that a 12-kilobase full-length human dystrophin complementary DNA gene and a 6.3-kilobase Becker-like gene can be expressed in cultured cells and in vivo. When the human dystrophin expression plasmids are injected intramuscularly into dystrophin-deficient mdx mice, the human dystrophin proteins are present in the cytoplasm and sarcolemma of approximately 1% of the myofibres. Myofibres expressing human dystrophin contain an increased proportion of peripheral nuclei. The results indicate that transfer of the dystrophin gene into the myofibres of DMD patients could be beneficial, but a larger number of genetically modified myofibres will be necessary for clinical efficacy.
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34 |
337 |
15
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Mayer U, Saher G, Fässler R, Bornemann A, Echtermeyer F, von der Mark H, Miosge N, Pöschl E, von der Mark K. Absence of integrin alpha 7 causes a novel form of muscular dystrophy. Nat Genet 1997; 17:318-23. [PMID: 9354797 DOI: 10.1038/ng1197-318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 331] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Integrin alpha 7 beta 1 is a specific cellular receptor for the basement membrane protein laminin-1 (refs 1,2), as well as for the laminin isoforms -2 and -4 (ref. 3). The alpha 7 subunit is expressed mainly in skeletal and cardiac muscle and has been suggested to be involved in differentiation and migration processes during myogenesis. Three cytoplasmic and two extracellular splice variants that have been described are developmentally regulated and expressed in different sites in the muscle. In adult muscle, the alpha 7A and alpha 7B subunits are concentrated in myotendinous junctions but can also be detected in neuromuscular junctions and along the sarcolemmal membrane. To study the potential involvement of alpha 7 integrin, during myogenesis and its role in muscle integrity and function, we generated a null allele of the alpha 7 gene (Itga7) in the germline of mice by homologous recombination in embryonic stem (ES) cells. Surprisingly, mice homozygous for the mutation are viable and fertile, indicating that the alpha 7 beta 1 integrin is not essential for myogenesis. However, histological analysis of skeletal muscle revealed typical symptoms of a progressive muscular dystrophy starting soon after birth, but with a distinct variability in different muscle types. The observed histopathological changes strongly indicate an impairment of function of the myotendinous junctions. These findings demonstrate that alpha 7 beta 1 integrin represents an indispensable linkage between the muscle fibre and the extracellular matrix that is independent of the dystrophin-dystroglycan complex-mediated interaction of the cytoskeleton with the muscle basement membrane.
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28 |
331 |
16
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Cooper BJ, Winand NJ, Stedman H, Valentine BA, Hoffman EP, Kunkel LM, Scott MO, Fischbeck KH, Kornegay JN, Avery RJ. The homologue of the Duchenne locus is defective in X-linked muscular dystrophy of dogs. Nature 1988; 334:154-6. [PMID: 3290691 DOI: 10.1038/334154a0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 302] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is the most common and the most severe of the muscular dystrophies in man. It is inherited as an X-linked recessive trait and is characterized by ongoing necrosis of skeletal muscle fibres with regeneration and eventually fibrosis and fatty infiltration. Although the gene and gene product which are defective in DMD have recently been identified, the pathogenesis of the disease is still poorly understood. A myopathy has been described in the dog which has been shown to be inherited as an X-linked trait and which is therefore a potential model of the human disease. We have studied the phenotypic expression of the disease, canine X-linked muscular dystrophy (CXMD), and have examined the molecular relationship between it and DMD. We report here that dogs with CXMD faithfully mimic the phenotype of Duchenne muscular dystrophy and that they lack the Duchenne gene transcript and its protein product, dystrophin.
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Comparative Study |
37 |
302 |
17
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Ragot T, Vincent N, Chafey P, Vigne E, Gilgenkrantz H, Couton D, Cartaud J, Briand P, Kaplan JC, Perricaudet M. Efficient adenovirus-mediated transfer of a human minidystrophin gene to skeletal muscle of mdx mice. Nature 1993; 361:647-50. [PMID: 8437625 DOI: 10.1038/361647a0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 295] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Duchenne progressive muscular dystrophy is a lethal and common X-linked genetic disease caused by the absence of dystrophin, a 427K protein encoded by a 14 kilobase transcript. Two approaches have been proposed to correct the dystrophin deficiency in muscle. The first, myoblast transfer therapy, uses cells from normal donors, whereas the second involves direct intramuscular injection of recombinant plasmids expressing dystrophin. Adenovirus is an efficient vector for in vivo expression of various foreign genes. It has recently been demonstrated that a recombinant adenovirus expressing the lac-Z reporter gene can infect stably many mouse tissues, particularly muscle and heart. We have tested the ability of a recombinant adenovirus, containing a 6.3 kilobase pair Becker-like dystrophin complementary DNA driven by the Rous sarcoma virus promoter to direct the expression of a 'minidystrophin' in infected 293 cells and C2 myoblasts, and in the mdx mouse, after intramuscular injection. We report here that in vivo, we have obtained a sarcolemmal immunostaining in up to 50% of fibres of the injected muscle.
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32 |
295 |
18
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Lu QL, Mann CJ, Lou F, Bou-Gharios G, Morris GE, Xue SA, Fletcher S, Partridge TA, Wilton SD. Functional amounts of dystrophin produced by skipping the mutated exon in the mdx dystrophic mouse. Nat Med 2003; 9:1009-14. [PMID: 12847521 DOI: 10.1038/nm897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 293] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2003] [Accepted: 06/10/2003] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
As a target for gene therapy, Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) presents many obstacles but also an unparalleled prospect for correction by alternative splicing. The majority of mutations in the dystrophin gene occur in the region encoding the spectrin-like central rod domain, which is largely dispensable. Thus, splicing around mutations can generate a shortened but in-frame transcript, permitting translation of a partially functional dystrophin protein. We have tested this idea in vivo in the mdx dystrophic mouse (carrying a mutation in exon 23 of the dystrophin gene) by combining a potent transfection protocol with a 2-O-methylated phosphorothioated antisense oligoribonucleotide (2OMeAO) designed to promote skipping of the mutated exon*. The treated mice show persistent production of dystrophin at normal levels in large numbers of muscle fibers and show functional improvement of the treated muscle. Repeated administration enhances dystrophin expression without eliciting immune responses. Our data establishes the realistic practicality of an approach that is applicable, in principle, to a majority of cases of severe dystrophinopathy.
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22 |
293 |
19
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Coral-Vazquez R, Cohn RD, Moore SA, Hill JA, Weiss RM, Davisson RL, Straub V, Barresi R, Bansal D, Hrstka RF, Williamson R, Campbell KP. Disruption of the sarcoglycan-sarcospan complex in vascular smooth muscle: a novel mechanism for cardiomyopathy and muscular dystrophy. Cell 1999; 98:465-74. [PMID: 10481911 DOI: 10.1016/s0092-8674(00)81975-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 291] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
To investigate mechanisms in the pathogenesis of cardiomyopathy associated with mutations of the dystrophin-glycoprotein complex, we analyzed genetically engineered mice deficient for either alpha-sarcoglycan (Sgca) or delta-sarcoglycan (Sgcd). We found that only Sgcd null mice developed cardiomyopathy with focal areas of necrosis as the histological hallmark in cardiac and skeletal muscle. Absence of the sarcoglycan-sarcospan (SG-SSPN) complex in skeletal and cardiac membranes was observed in both animal models. Loss of vascular smooth muscle SG-SSPN complex was only detected in Sgcd null mice and associated with irregularities of the coronary vasculature. Administration of a vascular smooth muscle relaxant prevented onset of myocardial necrosis. Our data indicate that disruption of the SG-SSPN complex in vascular smooth muscle perturbs vascular function, which initiates cardiomyopathy and exacerbates muscular dystrophy.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Cardiomyopathy, Dilated/genetics
- Cardiomyopathy, Dilated/metabolism
- Cardiomyopathy, Dilated/pathology
- Carrier Proteins/physiology
- Coronary Vessels/pathology
- Cytoskeletal Proteins/deficiency
- Cytoskeletal Proteins/genetics
- Cytoskeletal Proteins/physiology
- Macromolecular Substances
- Membrane Glycoproteins/deficiency
- Membrane Glycoproteins/genetics
- Membrane Glycoproteins/physiology
- Membrane Proteins/physiology
- Mice
- Mice, Knockout
- Muscle, Smooth, Vascular/metabolism
- Muscle, Smooth, Vascular/pathology
- Muscular Dystrophy, Animal/genetics
- Muscular Dystrophy, Animal/metabolism
- Muscular Dystrophy, Animal/pathology
- Myocardium/pathology
- Necrosis
- Neoplasm Proteins
- Physical Conditioning, Animal/adverse effects
- Sarcoglycans
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Millay DP, Sargent MA, Osinska H, Baines CP, Barton ER, Vuagniaux G, Sweeney HL, Robbins J, Molkentin JD. Genetic and pharmacologic inhibition of mitochondrial-dependent necrosis attenuates muscular dystrophy. Nat Med 2008; 14:442-7. [PMID: 18345011 PMCID: PMC2655270 DOI: 10.1038/nm1736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 291] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2007] [Accepted: 02/11/2008] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Muscular dystrophies comprise a diverse group of genetic disorders that lead to muscle wasting and, in many instances, premature death. Many mutations that cause muscular dystrophy compromise the support network that connects myofilament proteins within the cell to the basal lamina outside the cell, rendering the sarcolemma more permeable or leaky. Here we show that deletion of the gene encoding cyclophilin D (Ppif) rendered mitochondria largely insensitive to the calcium overload-induced swelling associated with a defective sarcolemma, thus reducing myofiber necrosis in two distinct models of muscular dystrophy. Mice lacking delta-sarcoglycan (Scgd(-/-) mice) showed markedly less dystrophic disease in both skeletal muscle and heart in the absence of Ppif. Moreover, the premature lethality associated with deletion of Lama2, encoding the alpha-2 chain of laminin-2, was rescued, as were other indices of dystrophic disease. Treatment with the cyclophilin inhibitor Debio-025 similarly reduced mitochondrial swelling and necrotic disease manifestations in mdx mice, a model of Duchenne muscular dystrophy, and in Scgd(-/-) mice. Thus, mitochondrial-dependent necrosis represents a prominent disease mechanism in muscular dystrophy, suggesting that inhibition of cyclophilin D could provide a new pharmacologic treatment strategy for these diseases.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Peptidyl-Prolyl Isomerase F
- Cyclophilins/antagonists & inhibitors
- Cyclophilins/deficiency
- Cyclophilins/genetics
- Cyclosporine/pharmacology
- Humans
- Laminin/deficiency
- Laminin/genetics
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Inbred mdx
- Mice, Knockout
- Mitochondria, Muscle/drug effects
- Mitochondria, Muscle/pathology
- Mitochondrial Swelling/drug effects
- Muscle, Skeletal/drug effects
- Muscle, Skeletal/pathology
- Muscular Dystrophy, Animal/drug therapy
- Muscular Dystrophy, Animal/genetics
- Muscular Dystrophy, Animal/pathology
- Myocardium/pathology
- Necrosis
- Sarcoglycans/deficiency
- Sarcoglycans/genetics
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Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural |
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Abstract
The time-course of degeneration/regeneration was investigated in leg muscles throughout the life of the mdx mutant mouse, which is a biochemical homologue of Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD). In young and adult mice (up to 52 weeks old), muscle fibre necrosis was compensated by a vigorous regeneration, but in old mdx mice (65-104 weeks) this regeneration slightly declined, while the necrotic process persisted. Body and muscles weights declined strikingly after 52 weeks. Life span of mdx mutants was reduced in comparison with the control C57BL/10 animals. Immunostaining of old mdx muscles showed clusters of dystrophin-positive fibres. Muscle fibres in old mdx mice showed great variation in size, many being atrophied or split. Endomysial fibrosis became increasingly conspicuous, and there was some accumulation of adipose tissue. These progressive degenerative changes of old mdx mice resemble those found in DMD and imply that basic pathological similarities between the murine and human diseases previously observed in diaphragm of mdx mice may be extended to other skeletal muscles.
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Bittner RE, Schöfer C, Weipoltshammer K, Ivanova S, Streubel B, Hauser E, Freilinger M, Höger H, Elbe-Bürger A, Wachtler F. Recruitment of bone-marrow-derived cells by skeletal and cardiac muscle in adult dystrophic mdx mice. ANATOMY AND EMBRYOLOGY 1999; 199:391-6. [PMID: 10221450 DOI: 10.1007/s004290050237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 283] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
It is commonly accepted, that regenerative capacity of striated muscle is confined to skeletal muscle by activation of satellite cells that normally reside quiescent between the plasmalemma and the basement membrane of muscle fibers. Muscular dystrophies are characterized by repetitive cycles of de- and regeneration of skeletal muscle fibers and by the frequent involvement of the cardiac muscle. Since during the longstanding course of muscular dystrophies there is a permanent demand of myogenic progenitors we hypothesized that this may necessitate a recruitment of additional myogenic precursors from an undifferentiated, permanently renewed cell pool, such as bone marrow (BM) cells. To this end normal and dystrophic (mdx) female mice received bone marrow transplantation (BMT) from normal congenic male donor mice. After 70 days, histological sections of skeletal and cardiac muscle from BMT mice were probed for the donor-derived Y chromosomes. In normal BMT recipients, no Y chromosome-containing myonuclei were detected, either in skeletal or in cardiac muscle. However, in all samples from dystrophic mdx skeletal muscles Y chromosome-specific signals were detected within muscle fiber nuclei, which additionally were found to express the myoregulatory proteins myogenin and myf-5. Moreover, in the hearts of BMT-mdx mice single cardiomyocytes with donor derived nuclei were identified, indicating, that even cardiac muscle cells are able to regenerate by recruitment of circulating BM-derived progenitors. Our findings suggest that further characterization and identification of the BM cells capable of undergoing myogenic differentiation may have an outstanding impact on therapeutic strategies for diseases of skeletal and cardiac muscle.
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Xu H, Wu XR, Wewer UM, Engvall E. Murine muscular dystrophy caused by a mutation in the laminin alpha 2 (Lama2) gene. Nat Genet 1994; 8:297-302. [PMID: 7874173 DOI: 10.1038/ng1194-297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 274] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
The classic murine muscular dystrophy strain, dy, was first described almost 40 years ago. We have identified the molecular basis of an allele of dy, called dy2J, by detecting a mutation in the laminin alpha 2 chain gene--the first identified mutation in laminin-2. The G to A mutation in a splice site consensus sequence causes abnormal splicing and expression of multiple mRNAs. One mRNA is translated into an alpha 2 polypeptide with a deletion in domain VI. The truncated protein apparently lacks important qualities of the wild type protein and is unable to provide sufficient muscle stability.
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Comparative Study |
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Chamberlain JS, Metzger J, Reyes M, Townsend D, Faulkner JA. Dystrophin-deficient mdx mice display a reduced life span and are susceptible to spontaneous rhabdomyosarcoma. FASEB J 2007; 21:2195-204. [PMID: 17360850 DOI: 10.1096/fj.06-7353com] [Citation(s) in RCA: 263] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is the most common, lethal genetic disorder of children. A number of animal models of muscular dystrophy exist, but the most effective model for characterizing the structural and functional properties of dystrophin and therapeutic interventions has been the mdx mouse. Despite the approximately 20 years of investigations of the mdx mouse, the impact of the disease on the life span of mdx mice and the cause of death remain unresolved. Consequently, a life span study of the mdx mouse was designed that included cohorts of male and female mdx and wild-type C57BL/10 mice housed under specific pathogen-free conditions with deaths restricted to natural causes and with examination of the carcasses for pathology. Compared with wild-type mice, both mdx male and female mice had reduced life spans and displayed a progressively dystrophic muscle histopathology. Surprisingly, old mdx mice were prone to develop muscle tumors that resembled the human form of alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma, a cancer associated with poor prognosis. Rhabdomyosarcomas have not been observed previously in nontransgenic mice. The results substantiate the mdx mouse as an important model system for studies of the pathogenesis of and potential remedies for DMD.
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Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural |
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Feltri ML, Graus Porta D, Previtali SC, Nodari A, Migliavacca B, Cassetti A, Littlewood-Evans A, Reichardt LF, Messing A, Quattrini A, Mueller U, Wrabetz L. Conditional disruption of beta 1 integrin in Schwann cells impedes interactions with axons. J Cell Biol 2002; 156:199-209. [PMID: 11777940 PMCID: PMC2173589 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.200109021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 263] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2001] [Revised: 11/16/2001] [Accepted: 11/20/2001] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
In dystrophic mice, a model of merosin-deficient congenital muscular dystrophy, laminin-2 mutations produce peripheral nerve dysmyelination and render Schwann cells unable to sort bundles of axons. The laminin receptor and the mechanism through which dysmyelination and impaired sorting occur are unknown. We describe mice in which Schwann cell-specific disruption of beta1 integrin, a component of laminin receptors, causes a severe neuropathy with impaired radial sorting of axons. beta 1-null Schwann cells populate nerves, proliferate, and survive normally, but do not extend or maintain normal processes around axons. Interestingly, some Schwann cells surpass this problem to form normal myelin, possibly due to the presence of other laminin receptors such as dystroglycan and alpha 6 beta 4 integrin. These data suggest that beta 1 integrin links laminin in the basal lamina to the cytoskeleton in order for Schwann cells to ensheath axons, and alteration of this linkage contributes to the peripheral neuropathy of congenital muscular dystrophy.
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research-article |
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