[Enhanced recovery after surgery based on medical ethics]

Enhanced recovery after surgery (ERAS), a new model of perioperative management developed in recent years, can shorten hospital stay, reduce medical cost and postoperative discomfort. However, some of these measures under the strategy are negation of the traditional recommendation and many surgeons are concerned about the medical tangle by the complications coming with the ERAS strategy. In this paper, ERAS strategy is evaluated from an ethical standpoint and the assessment factors of medical behavior are introduced based on medical virtues and medical ethnics. It is also analyzed that how to deal with the conflicts between the textbooks and the ERAS strategy, and elaborated that the medical ethics should be observed if the ERAS strategy is implemented. The scientific principles must be followed, the rights and interests of the patients need to be protected, and the informed consent should be guaranteed.

Medical tourism in plastic surgery: ethical guidelines and practice standards for perioperative care

BACKGROUND

The goal of this review was to identify the safety and medical care issues that surround the management of patients who had previously undergone medical care through tourism medicine. Medical tourism in plastic surgery occurs via three main referral patterns: macrotourism, in which a patient receives treatments abroad; microtourism, in which a patient undergoes a procedure by a distant plastic surgeon but requires postoperative and/or long-term management by a local plastic surgeon; and specialty tourism, in which a patient receives plastic surgery from a non-plastic surgeon.

METHODS

The ethical practice guidelines of the American Medical Association, International Society of Aesthetic Plastic Surgery, American Society of Plastic Surgeons, and American Board of Plastic Surgeons were reviewed with respect to patient care and the practice of medical tourism.

CONCLUSIONS

Safe and responsible care should start prior to surgery, with communication and postoperative planning between the treating physician and the accepting physician. Complications can arise at any time; however, it is the duty and ethical responsibility of plastic surgeons to prevent unnecessary complications following tourism medicine by adequately counseling patients, defining perioperative treatment protocols, and reporting complications to regional and specialty-specific governing bodies.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE V

This journal requires that authors assign a level of evidence to each article. For a full description of these Evidence-Based Medicine ratings, please refer to the Table of Contents or the online Instructions to Authors www.springer.com/00266.

Respect, compassion and dignity: the foundations of ethical and professional caring

Throughout 2011, and for much of this year, the national and professional press have been dominated by reports of failures in health and social care. Stories have focussed on the avoidable harm and disturbing cruelty suffered by individuals and the distress of distraught families seeking answers in the light of systemic organisational failure on an incredible scale (Francis 2010, CQC 2011a, CQC 2011b).

Perioperative do-not-resuscitate orders--doing 'nothing' when 'something' can be done

Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) has the ability to reverse premature death. It can also prolong terminal illness, increase discomfort and consume enormous resources. Despite the desire to respect patient autonomy, there are many reasons why withholding CPR may be complicated in the perioperative setting. This review outlines these factors in order to offer practical suggestions and to provoke discussion among perioperative care providers. Although originally described for witnessed intraoperative arrests, closed chest cardiac massage quickly became universal practice, and a legal imperative in many hospitals. Concerns were raised by both health care workers and patient groups; this eventually led to the creation of the do-not-resuscitate (DNR) order. However, legal precedents and ethical interpretations dictated that patients were expected to receive full resuscitation unless there was explicit documentation to the contrary. In short, CPR became the only medical intervention that required an order to prevent it from being performed. Before the 1990s, patients routinely had pre-existing DNR orders suspended during the perioperative period. Several articles criticized this widespread practice, and the policy of 'required reconsideration' was proposed. Despite this, many practical issues have hindered widespread observance of DNR orders for surgical patients, including concerns related to the DNR order itself and difficulties related to the nature of the operating room environment. This review outlines the origins of the DNR order, and how it currently affects the patient presenting for surgery with a pre-existing DNR order. There are many obstacles yet to overcome, but several practical strategies exist to aid health care workers and patients alike.

Informed consent

Disclosure of information prior to consent is a very complex area of medical ethics. On the surface it would seem to be quite clear cut, but on closer inspection the scope for 'grey areas' is vast. In practice, however, it could be argued that the number of cases that result in complaint or litigation is comparatively small. However, this does not mean that wrong decisions or unethical scenarios do not occur. It would seem that in clinical practice these ethical grey areas concerning patients' full knowledge of their condition or treatment are quite common. One of the barometers for how much disclosure should be given prior to consent could be the feedback obtained from the patients. Are they asking relevant questions pertinent to their condition and do they show a good understanding of the options available? This should be seen as a positive trait and should be welcomed by the healthcare professionals. Ultimately it gives patients greater autonomy and the healthcare professional can expand and build on the patient's knowledge as well as allay fears perhaps based on wrongly held information. Greater communication with the patient would help the healthcare professional pitch their explanations at the right level. Every case and scenario is different and unique and deserves to be treated as such. Studies have shown that most patients can understand their medical condition and treatment provided communication has been thorough (Gillon 1996). It is in the patients' best interests to feel comfortable with the level of disclosure offered to them. It can only foster greater trust and respect between them and the healthcare profession which has to be mutually beneficial to both parties.

Ethics versus education: pelvic exams on anesthetized women

In a survey of junior and senior medical students at the University of Oklahoma, a large majority of respondents reported having performed pelvic exams on anesthetized gynecologic surgery patients. Nearly three-quarters also reported believing that these patients had not specifically consented to undergo exams by students during their surgical procedures. While some students and medical educators maintain that pelvic exams under anesthesia are necessary for the development of students' examination skills, this assertion has not gone unquestioned. Serious ethical concerns have been raised by members of the medical community and women's advocacy groups, and the practice was recently outlawed in one state. Despite this widespread opposition, non-consented pelvic examinations evidently remain a common practice in US teaching hospitals. Our consideration of this controversial issue leads us to conclude that explicit, informed consent must be obtained in order for pelvic examinations to be performed on surgical patients, or risk compromising the doctor-patient relationship.