Phytophthora genome sequences uncover evolutionary origins and mechanisms of pathogenesis

Draft genome sequences have been determined for the soybean pathogen Phytophthora sojae and the sudden oak death pathogen Phytophthora ramorum. Oömycetes such as these Phytophthora species share the kingdom Stramenopila with photosynthetic algae such as diatoms, and the presence of many Phytophthora genes of probable phototroph origin supports a photosynthetic ancestry for the stramenopiles. Comparison of the two species' genomes reveals a rapid expansion and diversification of many protein families associated with plant infection such as hydrolases, ABC transporters, protein toxins, proteinase inhibitors, and, in particular, a superfamily of 700 proteins with similarity to known oömycete avirulence genes.

Pre- and Postinvasion Defenses Both Contribute to Nonhost Resistance in Arabidopsis

Nonhost resistance describes the immunity of an entire plant species against nonadapted pathogen species. We report that Arabidopsis PEN2 restricts pathogen entry of two ascomycete powdery mildew fungi that in nature colonize grass and pea species. The PEN2 glycosyl hydrolase localizes to peroxisomes and acts as a component of an inducible preinvasion resistance mechanism. Postinvasion fungal growth is blocked by a separate resistance layer requiring the EDS1-PAD4-SAG101 signaling complex, which is known to function in basal and resistance (R) gene-triggered immunity. Concurrent impairment of pre- and postinvasion resistance renders Arabidopsis a host for both nonadapted fungi.

OXI1 kinase is necessary for oxidative burst-mediated signalling in Arabidopsis

Active oxygen species (AOS) generated in response to stimuli and during development can function as signalling molecules in eukaryotes, leading to specific downstream responses. In plants these include such diverse processes as coping with stress (for example pathogen attack, wounding and oxygen deprivation), abscisic-acid-induced guard-cell closure, and cellular development (for example root hair growth). Despite the importance of signalling via AOS in eukaryotes, little is known about the protein components operating downstream of AOS that mediate any of these processes. Here we show that expression of an Arabidopsis thaliana gene (OXI1) encoding a serine/threonine kinase is induced in response to a wide range of H2O2-generating stimuli. OXI1 kinase activity is itself also induced by H2O2 in vivo. OXI1 is required for full activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) MPK3 and MPK6 after treatment with AOS or elicitor and is necessary for at least two very different AOS-mediated processes: basal resistance to Peronospora parasitica infection, and root hair growth. Thus, OXI1 is an essential part of the signal transduction pathway linking oxidative burst signals to diverse downstream responses.

Phytophthora infestans: the plant (and R gene) destroyer

Phytophthora infestans remains a problem to production agriculture. Historically there have been many controversies concerning its biology and pathogenicity, some of which remain today. Advances in molecular biology and genomics promise to reveal fascinating insight into its pathogenicity and biology. However, the plasticity of its genome as revealed in population diversity and in the abundance of putative effectors means that this oomycete remains a formidable foe.

MAPK signaling regulates nitric oxide and NADPH oxidase-dependent oxidative bursts in Nicotiana benthamiana

Nitric oxide (NO) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) act as signals in innate immunity in plants. The radical burst is induced by INF1 elicitin, produced by the oomycete pathogen Phytophthora infestans. NO ASSOCIATED1 (NOA1) and NADPH oxidase participate in the radical burst. Here, we show that mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascades MEK2-SIPK/NTF4 and MEK1-NTF6 participate in the regulation of the radical burst. NO generation was induced by conditional activation of SIPK/NTF4, but not by NTF6, in Nicotiana benthamiana leaves. INF1- and SIPK/NTF4-mediated NO bursts were compromised by the knockdown of NOA1. However, ROS generation was induced by either SIPK/NTF4 or NTF6. INF1- and MAPK-mediated ROS generation was eliminated by silencing Respiratory Burst Oxidase Homolog B (RBOHB), an inducible form of the NADPH oxidase. INF1-induced expression of RBOHB was compromised in SIPK/NTF4/NTF6-silenced leaves. These results indicated that INF1 regulates NOA1-mediated NO and RBOHB-dependent ROS generation through MAPK cascades. NOA1 silencing induced high susceptibility to Colletotrichum orbiculare but not to P. infestans; conversely, RBOHB silencing decreased resistance to P. infestans but not to C. orbiculare. These results indicate that the effects of the radical burst on the defense response appear to be diverse in plant-pathogen interactions.

RXLR-mediated entry of Phytophthora sojae effector Avr1b into soybean cells does not require pathogen-encoded machinery

Effector proteins secreted by oomycete and fungal pathogens have been inferred to enter host cells, where they interact with host resistance gene products. Using the effector protein Avr1b of Phytophthora sojae, an oomycete pathogen of soybean (Glycine max), we show that a pair of sequence motifs, RXLR and dEER, plus surrounding sequences, are both necessary and sufficient to deliver the protein into plant cells. Particle bombardment experiments demonstrate that these motifs function in the absence of the pathogen, indicating that no additional pathogen-encoded machinery is required for effector protein entry into host cells. Furthermore, fusion of the Avr1b RXLR-dEER domain to green fluorescent protein (GFP) allows GFP to enter soybean root cells autonomously. The conclusion that RXLR and dEER serve to transduce oomycete effectors into host cells indicates that the >370 RXLR-dEER-containing proteins encoded in the genome sequence of P. sojae are candidate effectors. We further show that the RXLR and dEER motifs can be replaced by the closely related erythrocyte targeting signals found in effector proteins of Plasmodium, the protozoan that causes malaria in humans. Mutational analysis of the RXLR motif shows that the required residues are very similar in the motifs of Plasmodium and Phytophthora. Thus, the machinery of the hosts (soybean and human) targeted by the effectors may be very ancient.

The spores of Phytophthora: weapons of the plant destroyer

Members of the genus Phytophthora are among the most serious threats to agriculture and food production, causing devastating diseases in hundreds of plant hosts. These fungus-like eukaryotes, which are taxonomically classified as oomycetes, generate asexual and sexual spores with characteristics that greatly contribute to their pathogenic success. The spores include survival and dispersal structures, and potent infectious propagules capable of actively locating hosts. Genetic tools and genomic resources developed over the past decade are now allowing detailed analysis of these important stages in the Phytophthora life cycle.

Identification of PAD2 as a gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase highlights the importance of glutathione in disease resistance of Arabidopsis

The Arabidopsis pad2-1 mutant belongs to a series of non-allelic camalexin-deficient mutants. It was originally described as showing enhanced susceptibility to virulent strains of Pseudomonas syringae and was later shown to be hyper-susceptible to the oomycete pathogen Phytophthora brassicae (formerly P. porri). Surprisingly, in both pathosystems, the disease susceptibility of pad2-1 was not caused by the camalexin deficiency, suggesting additional roles of PAD2 in disease resistance. The susceptibility of pad2-1 to P. brassicae was used to map the mutation to the gene At4g23100, which encodes gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase (gamma-ECS, GSH1). GSH1 catalyzes the first committed step of glutathione (GSH) biosynthesis. The pad2-1 mutation caused an S to N transition at amino acid position 298 close to the active center. The conclusion that PAD2 encodes GSH1 is supported by several lines of evidence: (i) pad2-1 mutants contained only about 22% of wild-type amounts of GSH, (ii) genetic complementation of pad2-1 with wild-type GSH1 cDNA restored GSH production, accumulation of camalexin in response to P. syringae and resistance to P. brassicae and P. syringae, (iii) another GSH1 mutant, cad2-1, showed pad2-like phenotypes, and (iv) feeding of GSH to excised leaves of pad2-1 restored camalexin production and resistance to P. brassicae. Inoculation of Col-0 with P. brassicae caused a coordinated increase in the transcript abundance of GSH1 and GSH2, the gene encoding the second enzyme in GSH biosynthesis, and resulted in enhanced foliar GSH accumulation. The pad2-1 mutant showed enhanced susceptibility to additional pathogens, suggesting an important general role of GSH in disease resistance of Arabidopsis.

The oomycete broad-host-range pathogen Phytophthora capsici

Phytophthora capsici is a highly dynamic and destructive pathogen of vegetables. It attacks all cucurbits, pepper, tomato and eggplant, and, more recently, snap and lima beans. The disease incidence and severity have increased significantly in recent decades and the molecular resources to study this pathogen are growing and now include a reference genome. At the population level, the epidemiology varies according to the geographical location, with populations in South America dominated by clonal reproduction, and populations in the USA and South Africa composed of many unique genotypes in which sexual reproduction is common. Just as the impact of crop loss as a result of P. capsici has increased in recent decades, there has been a similar increase in the development of new tools and resources to study this devastating pathogen. Phytophthora capsici presents an attractive model for understanding broad-host-range oomycetes, the impact of sexual recombination in field populations and the basic mechanisms of Phytophthora virulence.

TAXONOMY

Kingdom Chromista; Phylum Oomycota; Class Oomycetes; Order Peronosporales; Family Peronosporaceae; Genus Phytophthora; Species capsici.

DISEASE SYMPTOMS

Symptoms vary considerably according to the host, plant part infected and environmental conditions. For example, in dry areas (e.g. southwestern USA and southern France), infection on tomato and bell or chilli pepper is generally on the roots and crown, and the infected plants have a distinctive black/brown lesion visible at the soil line (Fig. 1). In areas in which rainfall is more common (e.g. eastern USA), all parts of the plant are infected, including the roots, crown, foliage and fruit (Fig. 1). Root infections cause damping off in seedlings, whereas, in older plants, it is common to see stunted growth, wilting and, eventually, death. For tomatoes, it is common to see significant adventitious root growth just above an infected tap root, and the stunted plants, although severely compromised, may not die. For many cucurbit fruit, the expanding lesions produce fresh sporangia over days (or even weeks depending on the size of the fruit) and the fruit often look as if they have been dipped in white powdered confectioner's sugar (Fig. 1). Generally, hyphae do not emerge from infected plants or fruit (common with Pythium infections) and all that is visible on the surface of an infected plant is sporangia.

IMPORTANCE

Phytophthora capsici presents an oomycete worst-case scenario to growers as it has a broad host range, often produces long-lived dormant sexual spores, has extensive genotypic diversity and has an explosive asexual disease cycle. It is becoming increasingly apparent that novel control strategies are needed to safeguard food production from P. capsici and other oomycetes. Considering that P. capsici is easy to grow, mate and manipulate in the laboratory and infects many plant species, this pathogen is a robust model for investigations, particularly those related to sexual reproduction, host range and virulence.

USEFUL WEBSITES

Phytophthora capsici genome database: http://genome.jgi-psf.org/Phyca11/Phyca11.home.html. Molecular tools to identify Phytophthora isolates: http://phytophthora-id.org.

Phytophthora ramorum: integrative research and management of an emerging pathogen in California and Oregon forests

Phytophthora ramorum, causal agent of sudden oak death, is an emerging plant pathogen first observed in North America associated with mortality of tanoak (Lithocarpus densiflorus) and coast live oak (Quercus agrifolia) in coastal forests of California during the mid-1990s. The pathogen is now known to occur in North America and Europe and have a host range of over 40 plant genera. Sudden oak death has become an example of unintended linkages between the horticultural industry and potential impacts on forest ecosystems. This paper examines the biology and ecology of P. ramorum in California and Oregon forests as well discussing research on the pathogen in a broader management context.

The Avr1b locus of Phytophthora sojae encodes an elicitor and a regulator required for avirulence on soybean plants carrying resistance gene Rps1b

We have used map-based approaches to clone a locus containing two genes, Avr1b-1 and Avr1b-2, required for avirulence of the oomycete pathogen Phytophthora sojae (Kaufmann & Gerdemann) on soybean plants carrying resistance gene Rps1b. Avr1b-1 was localized to a single 60-kb bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) clone by fine-structure genetic mapping. Avr1b-1 was localized within the 60-kb region by identification of an mRNA that is expressed in a race-specific and infection-specific manner and that encodes a small secreted protein. When the Avr1b-1 protein was synthesized in the yeast Pichia pastoris and the secreted protein infiltrated into soybean leaves, it triggered a hypersensitive response specifically in host plants carrying the Rps1b resistance gene. This response eventually spread to the entire inoculated plant. In some isolates of P. sojae virulent on Rps1b-containing cultivars, such as P7081 (race 25) and P7076 (race 19), the Avr1b-1 gene had numerous substitution mutations indicative of strong divergent selection. In other isolates, such as P6497 (race 2) and P9073 (race 25), there were no substitutions in Avr1b-1, but Avr1b-1 mRNA did not accumulate. Genetic complementation experiments with P6497 revealed the presence of a second gene, Avr1b-2, required for the accumulation of Avr1b-1 mRNA. Avr1b-2 was genetically mapped to the same BAC contig as Avr1b-1, using a cross between P7064 (race 7) and P6497. The Avr1k gene, required for avirulence on soybean cultivars containing Rps1k, was mapped to the same interval as Avr1b-1.

Quantitative resistance to Phytophthora infestans in potato: a case study for QTL mapping in an allogamous plant species

Phytophthora infestans is the most important fungal pathogen in the cultivated potato (Solanum tuberosum). Dominant, race-specific resistance alleles and quantitative resistance--the latter being more important for potato breeding--are found in the germplasm of cultivated and wild potato species. Quantitative trait loci (QTLs) for resistance to two races of P. infestans have been mapped in an F1 progeny of a cross between non-inbred diploid potato parents with multiple alleles. Interval mapping methods based on highly informative restriction fragment length polymorphism markers revealed 11 chromosome segments on 9 potato chromosomes showing significant contrasts between marker genotypic classes. Whereas phenotypically no difference in quantitative resistance response was observed between the two fungal races, QTL mapping identified at least one race specific QT locus. Two QT regions coincided with two small segments on chromosomes V and XII to which the dominant alleles R1, conferring race specific resistance to P. infestans, Rx1 and Rx2, both inducing extreme resistance to potato virus X, have been allocated in independent mapping experiments. Some minor QTLs were correlated with genetic loci for specific proteins related to pathogenesis, the expression of which is induced after infection with P. infestans.

Genome sequencing and mapping reveal loss of heterozygosity as a mechanism for rapid adaptation in the vegetable pathogen Phytophthora capsici

The oomycete vegetable pathogen Phytophthora capsici has shown remarkable adaptation to fungicides and new hosts. Like other members of this destructive genus, P. capsici has an explosive epidemiology, rapidly producing massive numbers of asexual spores on infected hosts. In addition, P. capsici can remain dormant for years as sexually recombined oospores, making it difficult to produce crops at infested sites, and allowing outcrossing populations to maintain significant genetic variation. Genome sequencing, development of a high-density genetic map, and integrative genomic or genetic characterization of P. capsici field isolates and intercross progeny revealed significant mitotic loss of heterozygosity (LOH) in diverse isolates. LOH was detected in clonally propagated field isolates and sexual progeny, cumulatively affecting >30% of the genome. LOH altered genotypes for more than 11,000 single-nucleotide variant sites and showed a strong association with changes in mating type and pathogenicity. Overall, it appears that LOH may provide a rapid mechanism for fixing alleles and may be an important component of adaptability for P. capsici.

Comparative genomics enabled the isolation of the R3a late blight resistance gene in potato

Comparative genomics provides a tool to utilize the exponentially increasing sequence information from model plants to clone agronomically important genes from less studied crop species. Plant disease resistance (R) loci frequently lack synteny between related species of cereals and crucifers but appear to be positionally well conserved in the Solanaceae. In this report, we adopted a local RGA approach using genomic information from the model Solanaceous plant tomato to isolate R3a, a potato gene that confers race-specific resistance to the late blight pathogen Phytophthora infestans. R3a is a member of the R3 complex locus on chromosome 11. Comparative analyses of the R3 complex locus with the corresponding I2 complex locus in tomato suggest that this is an ancient locus involved in plant innate immunity against oomycete and fungal pathogens. However, the R3 complex locus has evolved after divergence from tomato and the locus has experienced a significant expansion in potato without disruption of the flanking colinearity. This expansion has resulted in an increase in the number of R genes and in functional diversification, which has probably been driven by the co-evolutionary history between P. infestans and its host potato. Constitutive expression was observed for the R3a gene, as well as some of its paralogues whose functions remain unknown.

The disease triangle: pathogens, the environment and society

The primary means to define any disease is by naming a pathogen or agent that negatively affects the health of the host organism. Another assumed, but often overlooked, determinant of disease is the environment, which includes deleterious physical and social effects on mankind. The disease triangle is a conceptual model that shows the interactions between the environment, the host and an infectious (or abiotic) agent. This model can be used to predict epidemiological outcomes in plant health and public health, both in local and global communities. Here, the Irish potato famine of the mid-nineteenth century is used as an example to show how the disease triangle, originally devised to interpret plant disease outcomes, can be applied to public health. In parallel, malaria is used to discuss the role of the environment in disease transmission and control. In both examples, the disease triangle is used as a tool to discuss parameters that influence socioeconomic outcomes as a result of host-pathogen interactions involving plants and humans.

The Rpi-blb2 gene from Solanum bulbocastanum is an Mi-1 gene homolog conferring broad-spectrum late blight resistance in potato

The necessity to develop potato and tomato crops that possess durable resistance against the oomycete pathogen Phytophthora infestans is increasing as more virulent, crop-specialized and pesticide resistant strains of the pathogen are rapidly emerging. Here, we describe the positional cloning of the Solanum bulbocastanum-derived Rpi-blb2 gene, which even when present in a potato background confers broad-spectrum late blight resistance. The Rpi-blb2 locus was initially mapped in several tetraploid backcross populations, derived from highly resistant complex interspecific hybrids designated ABPT (an acronym of the four Solanum species involved:S. acaule, S. bulbocastanum, S. phureja and S. tuberosum), to the same region on chromosome 6 as the Mi-1 gene from tomato, which confers resistance to nematodes, aphids and white flies. Due to suppression of recombination in the tetraploid material, fine mapping was carried out in a diploid intraspecific S. bulbocastanum F1 population. Bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) libraries, generated from a diploid ABPT-derived clone and from the resistant S. bulbocastanum parent clone, were screened with markers linked to resistance in order to generate a physical map of the Rpi-blb2 locus. Molecular analyses of both ABPT- and S. bulbocastanum-derived BAC clones spanning the Rpi-blb2 locus showed it to harbor at least 15 Mi-1 gene homologs (MiGHs). Of these, five were genetically determined to be candidates for Rpi-blb2. Complementation analyses showed that one ABPT- and one S. bulbocastanum-derived MiGH were able to complement the susceptible phenotype in both S. tuberosum and tomato. Sequence analyses of both genes showed them to be identical. The Rpi-blb2 protein shares 82% sequence identity to the Mi-1 protein. Significant expansion of the Rpi-blb2 locus compared to the Mi-1 locus indicates that intrachromosomal recombination or unequal crossing over has played an important role in the evolution of the Rpi-blb2 locus. The contrasting evolutionary dynamics of the Rpi-blb2/Mi-1 loci in the two related genomes may reflect the opposite evolutionary potentials of the interacting pathogens.

Cooperative functioning between phenylalanine ammonia lyase and isochorismate synthase activities contributes to salicylic acid biosynthesis in soybean

Salicylic acid (SA), an essential regulator of plant defense, is derived from chorismate via either the phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL) or the isochorismate synthase (ICS) catalyzed steps. The ICS pathway is thought to be the primary contributor of defense-related SA, at least in Arabidopsis. We investigated the relative contributions of PAL and ICS to defense-related SA accumulation in soybean (Glycine max). Soybean plants silenced for five PAL isoforms or two ICS isoforms were analyzed for SA concentrations and SA-derived defense responses to the hemibiotrophic pathogens Pseudomonas syringae and Phytophthora sojae. We show that, unlike in Arabidopsis, PAL and ICS pathways are equally important for pathogen-induced SA biosynthesis in soybean. Knock-down of either pathway shuts down SA biosynthesis and abrogates pathogen resistance. Moreover, unlike in Arabidopsis, pathogen infection is associated with the suppression of ICS gene expression. Pathogen-induced biosynthesis of SA via the PAL pathway correlates inversely with phenylalanine concentrations. Although infections with either virulent or avirulent strains of the pathogens increase SA concentrations, resistance protein-mediated response to avirulent P. sojae strains may function in an SA-independent manner. These results show that PAL- and ICS-catalyzed reactions function cooperatively in soybean defense and highlight the importance of PAL in pathogen-induced SA biosynthesis.

The malarial host-targeting signal is conserved in the Irish potato famine pathogen

Animal and plant eukaryotic pathogens, such as the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum and the potato late blight agent Phytophthora infestans, are widely divergent eukaryotic microbes. Yet they both produce secretory virulence and pathogenic proteins that alter host cell functions. In P. falciparum, export of parasite proteins to the host erythrocyte is mediated by leader sequences shown to contain a host-targeting (HT) motif centered on an RxLx (E, D, or Q) core: this motif appears to signify a major pathogenic export pathway with hundreds of putative effectors. Here we show that a secretory protein of P. infestans, which is perceived by plant disease resistance proteins and induces hypersensitive plant cell death, contains a leader sequence that is equivalent to the Plasmodium HT-leader in its ability to export fusion of green fluorescent protein (GFP) from the P. falciparum parasite to the host erythrocyte. This export is dependent on an RxLR sequence conserved in P. infestans leaders, as well as in leaders of all ten secretory oomycete proteins shown to function inside plant cells. The RxLR motif is also detected in hundreds of secretory proteins of P. infestans, Phytophthora sojae, and Phytophthora ramorum and has high value in predicting host-targeted leaders. A consensus motif further reveals E/D residues enriched within approximately 25 amino acids downstream of the RxLR, which are also needed for export. Together the data suggest that in these plant pathogenic oomycetes, a consensus HT motif may reside in an extended sequence of approximately 25-30 amino acids, rather than in a short linear sequence. Evidence is presented that although the consensus is much shorter in P. falciparum, information sufficient for vacuolar export is contained in a region of approximately 30 amino acids, which includes sequences flanking the HT core. Finally, positional conservation between Phytophthora RxLR and P. falciparum RxLx (E, D, Q) is consistent with the idea that the context of their presentation is constrained. These studies provide the first evidence to our knowledge that eukaryotic microbes share equivalent pathogenic HT signals and thus conserved mechanisms to access host cells across plant and animal kingdoms that may present unique targets for prophylaxis across divergent pathogens.

A mixed-model approach to association mapping using pedigree information with an illustration of resistance to Phytophthora infestans in potato

Association or linkage disequilibrium (LD)-based mapping strategies are receiving increased attention for the identification of quantitative trait loci (QTL) in plants as an alternative to more traditional, purely linkage-based approaches. An attractive property of association approaches is that they do not require specially designed crosses between inbred parents, but can be applied to collections of genotypes with arbitrary and often unknown relationships between the genotypes. A less obvious additional attractive property is that association approaches offer possibilities for QTL identification in crops with hard to model segregation patterns. The availability of candidate genes and targeted marker systems facilitates association approaches, as will appropriate methods of analysis. We propose an association mapping approach based on mixed models with attention to the incorporation of the relationships between genotypes, whether induced by pedigree, population substructure, or otherwise. Furthermore, we emphasize the need to pay attention to the environmental features of the data as well, i.e., adequate representation of the relations among multiple observations on the same genotypes. We illustrate our modeling approach using 25 years of Dutch national variety list data on late blight resistance in the genetically complex crop of potato. As markers, we used nucleotide binding-site markers, a specific type of marker that targets resistance or resistance-analog genes. To assess the consistency of QTL identified by our mixed-model approach, a second independent data set was analyzed. Two markers were identified that are potentially useful in selection for late blight resistance in potato.

Sexual reproduction and the evolution of microbial pathogens

Three common systemic human fungal pathogens--Cryptococcus neoformans, Candida albicans and Aspergillus fumigatus--have retained all the machinery to engage in sexual reproduction, and yet their populations are often clonal with limited evidence for recombination. Striking parallels have emerged with four protozoan parasites that infect humans: Toxoplasma gondii, Trypanosoma brucei, Trypanosoma cruzi and Plasmodium falciparum. Limiting sexual reproduction appears to be a common virulence strategy, enabling generation of clonal populations well adapted to host and environmental niches, yet retaining the ability to engage in sexual or parasexual reproduction and respond to selective pressure. Continued investigation of the sexual nature of microbial pathogens should facilitate both laboratory investigation and an understanding of the complex interplay between pathogens, hosts, vectors, and their environments.

Membrane fusion during secretion. A hypothesis based on electron microscope observation of Phytophthora Palmivora zoospores during encystment

Interpretation of freeze-fracture and thin-section results shows that fusion of the peripheral vesicle with the plasmalemma of a Phytophthora palmivora zoospore occurs at several discrete sites and results in the formation and expansion of a particle-free bilayer membrane diaphragm and in the appearance of a polymorphic network of membrane-bounded tunnels, the lumina of which are continuous with the cytoplasm. The outer half of the bilayer membrane diaphragm appears continuous with the outer half of the plasma membrane; the inner half of the bilayer membrane diaphragm with the inner half of the peripheral vesicle membrane; and the inner half of the plasmalemma with the outer half of the peripheral vesicle membrane. Interpretation of our results leads us to formulate a hypothesis for a sequence of several intermediate stages involved in membrane fusion. The initial fusion event is viewed as a local catastrophe (Thom, R. 1972. Stabilité Structurelle et Morphogenèse. W. A. Benjamin Inc., Reading, Mass.) involving the sudden reorganization of apposed elements of the inner half of the plasmalemma and the outer half of the peripheral vesicle membrane. Fusion of apposed components at the rim of the perimeter of fusion results in the formation of a toroid hemi-micelle which provides continuity between the inner half of the plasmalemma and the outer half of the peripheral vesicle membrane. Simultaneously, apposed components at the site of fusion may reorganize into an inverted membrane micelle. A bilayer membrane diaphragm is then formed by apposition and flowing of components form the outer half of the plasmalemma and the inner (exoplasmic) half of the peripheral vesicle membrane. The existence of large areas of membrane contact before fusion may lead to several fusion events and the formation of a polymorphic network of membrane-bound tunnels.

The biology of Phytophthora infestans at its center of origin

The central highlands of Mexico are considered to be a center of genetic diversity for both the potato late blight pathogen and for tuber-bearing Solanum spp. Recent work conducted in Mexico and South America sheds new light on the biology and evolution of Phytophthora infestans and other related Phytophthora pathogens. It now appears that Mexican Solanum species, which coevolved with P. infestans and were previously known for providing a source of R-genes, also provide a source of quantitative, rate-reducing resistance that is highly effective, stable, and durable. It is now apparent that Mexico is the center of origin not only of the potato late blight pathogen P. infestans, but also of several related Phytophthora species including P. mirabilis, P. ipomoeae, and possibly P. phaseoli. We close with the hypothesis that these Phytophthora species evolved sympatrically from one ancestral host through adaptive radiation onto their respective four host families.

Expression of a stilbene synthase gene in Nicotiana tabacum results in synthesis of the phytoalexin resveratrol

A gene from groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) coding for stilbene synthase was transferred together with a chimaeric kanamycin resistance gene. It was found to be rapidly expressed after induction with UV light and elicitor in tobacco cells (Nicotiana tabacum). Comparative studies of stilbene synthase mRNA synthesis in groundnut and transgenic tobacco suspension cultures revealed the same kinetics of gene expression. Stilbene synthase specific mRNA was detectable 30 minutes after elicitor induction and 10 minutes after UV irradiation. The maximum of mRNA accumulation was between 2 and 8 hours post induction. 24 hours after induction stilbene synthase mRNA accumulation ceased. Furthermore, in transgenic tobacco plants, the gene was found to be inducible in sterile roots, stems and leaves. Stilbene synthase was demonstrated in crude protein extracts from transgenic tobacco cell cultures using specific antibodies. Resveratrol, the product of stilbene synthase, was identified by HPLC and antisera raised against resveratrol.

Leucine-rich repeat receptor-like gene screen reveals that Nicotiana RXEG1 regulates glycoside hydrolase 12 MAMP detection

Activation of innate immunity by membrane-localized receptors is conserved across eukaryotes. Plant genomes contain hundreds of such receptor-like genes and those encoding proteins with an extracellular leucine-rich repeat (LRR) domain represent the largest family. Here, we develop a high-throughput approach to study LRR receptor-like genes on a genome-wide scale. In total, 257 tobacco rattle virus-based constructs are generated to target 386 of the 403 identified LRR receptor-like genes in Nicotiana benthamiana for silencing. Using this toolkit, we identify the LRR receptor-like protein Response to XEG1 (RXEG1) that specifically recognizes the glycoside hydrolase 12 protein XEG1. RXEG1 associates with XEG1 via the LRR domain in the apoplast and forms a complex with the LRR receptor-like kinases BAK1 and SOBIR1 to transduce the XEG1-induced defense signal. Thus, this genome-wide silencing assay is demonstrated to be an efficient toolkit to pinpoint new immune receptors, which will contribute to developing durable disease resistance.

Synergistic interactions of the plant cell death pathways induced by Phytophthora infestans Nepl-like protein PiNPP1.1 and INF1 elicitin

Cell death plays a ubiquitous role in plant-microbe interactions, given that it is associated with both susceptible and resistance interactions. A class of cell death-inducing proteins, termed Nepl-like proteins (NLPs), has been reported in bacteria, fungi, and oomycetes. These proteins induce nonspecific necrosis in a variety of dicotyledonous plants. Here, we describe three members of the NLP family from the oomycete Phytophthora infestans (PiNPP1.1, PiNPP1.2, and PiNPP1.3). Using agroinfection with a binary Potato virus X vector, we showed that PiNPP1.1 induces cell death in Nicotiana benthamiana and the host plant tomato. Expression analyses indicated that PiNPP1.1 is up-regulated during late stages of infection of tomato by P. infestans. We compared PiNPP1.1 necrosis-inducing activity to INF1 elicitin, a well-studied protein that triggers the hypersensitive response in Nicotiana spp. Using virus-induced gene silencing, we showed that the cell death induced by PiNPP1.1 is dependent on the ubiquitin ligase-associated protein SGT1 and the heat-shock protein HSP90. In addition, cell death triggered by PiNPP1.1 but not that by INF1 was dependent on the defense-signaling proteins COI1, MEK2, NPR1, and TGA2.2, suggesting distinct signaling requirements. Combined expression of PiNPP1.1 and INF1 in N. benthamiana resulted in enhanced cell death, suggesting synergistic interplay between the two cell-death responses. Altogether, these results point to potentially distinct but interacting cell-death pathways induced by PiNPP1.1 and INF1 in plants.