Beetles and flies collected on pig carrion in an experimental setting in Thuringia and their forensic implications

Decomposition processes and insect succession were analysed on a total of eight pig (Sus scrofa) carcasses. The survey was carried out in four different periods between November 2007 and August 2008 and on two different substrates (meadow, concrete floor close to a building). The experiments were placed in a rural site in the surroundings of Jena, Thuringia. The duration and specificity of the different decomposition stages were dependent on season, weather and quality and quantity of insect colonization. Whereas the carrion maintained a bloated appearance even after 133 days in winter, it reached the dry stage within 8 days in the summer months. The type of substrate had few effects on the decaying process, but the insects were generally more abundant on the meadow. In total, more than 57 species of Diptera belonging to 17 families and 48 species of Coleoptera belonging to 14 families were identified. Dominant species belonged to the families of Calliphoridae (n = 11 spp.), Sarcophagidae (n = 8), Muscidae (n = 9), Piophilidae (n = 3), Silphidae (n = 6), Dermestidae (n = 3), Nitidulidae (n = 4), Cleridae (n = 3) and Histeridae (n = 2). Remarkably, the rather common Nicrophorus species were completely absent, whereas the usually rare Necrodes littoralis (L.) was present in larger numbers. No distinct coincidence between the occurrence of a single species and a certain decomposition stage could be confirmed. A main objective of the study is the establishment of a forensic entomological database for Central Europe, especially Thuringia.

Cloning and expression analysis of six small heat shock protein genes in the common cutworm, Spodoptera litura

Small heat shock proteins (sHsps) are probably the most diverse in structure and function among the various superfamilies of stress proteins. To explore the diverse functions of insect sHsps, six sHsp cDNAs were cloned from the midgut cDNA library of Spodoptera litura, and a phylogenetic tree was constructed based on the conserved α-crystalline domains. The expression patterns in different developmental stages and tissues, as well as in response to both thermal and 20-hydroxyecdysone (20E) induction, were studied by real-time quantitative PCR. Based on sequence characteristics and phylogenetic relationships, the six SlHsps were classified into three independent groups: BmHsp20.4 like proteins (SlHsp19.7, 20.4, 20.7, 20.8), BmHsp26.6 like protein (SlHsp20), and BmHsp21.4 like protein (SlHsp21.4). All the SlHsps showed highest expression in the Malpighian tubules. The four BmHsp20.4 like protein genes were up-regulated by thermal stress and showed expression variation with development. SlHsp20 exhibited lower expression levels in both egg and larval stages than in pupal and adult stages. SlHsp21.4 retained a constant expression level during all life stages. The expression of both SlHsp20.4 and SlHsp20.8 was significantly up-regulated by 20E. These results indicate that sHsps play diverse functions in S. litura: the BmHsp20.4 like proteins are involved in both thermal adaptation and development; SlHsp20 does not respond to temperature stress but possibly plays a role in metamorphosis; SlHsp21.4 may have no direct relationship with either thermal response or development.

Geometric morphometrics for the taxonomy of 11 species of Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) mosquitoes

The subgenus Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) (Diptera: Culicidae) includes the primary vectors of Plasmodium spp. in Colombia. Most adult females of this subgenus are difficult to identify in the field using the available keys. With the objective of further investigating the discriminatory power of modern morphometrics, both landmark-based and outline-based approaches were explored using the wing venation geometry of 11 Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) species. Wing shape was able to separate the closest species of the subgenus. When the 11 species were analysed together, validated classification scores on average 5.3-8.6 times higher than those expected by chance were observed. These scores computed from the total sample of 11 species were not satisfactory for the recognition of Anopheles benarrochi B, Anopheles oswaldoi s.l. and Anopheles strodei. These sibling species were captured in sympatry. To improve the identification power of the morphometric tool, it was necessary to analyse these species separately from the remaining species. The best classification scores were obtained using a combination of 12 landmarks collected not only on the intersections of wing veins, but also on spots. An outline approach also gave excellent reclassification scores. Another pair of sibling species, collected in allopatry, Anopheles nuneztovari and Anopheles rangeli, also showed high classification scores.

Sex ratios of mosquitoes from long-term censuses of Florida tree holes

Pupal sexes of the most common mosquito species were determined in the course of biweekly censuses (with replacement) of the contents of 3-7 tree holes from 1980-2003 in Vero Beach, FL. A significant (P < 0.001) male bias was detected over this period for the most abundant species, Aedes triseriatus. No significant deviation from a 1:1 sex ratio was detected among pupae of Toxorhynchites rutilus or Ae. albopictus, the latter species occurring in this community only since 1991. Although pupae of Ae. triseriatus were recorded during every month of the year, significant male biases were detected only in February-May, August, and December. These results are interpreted in the context of multivoltinism and the previously documented differential sensitivity of male and female eggs of this species to hatching stimuli. Sex-specific responses to hatching stimuli are judged to be present but less pronounced in eggs of Ae. albopictus. Male biases in container Aedes are likely associated with sexual selection, which may also explain seasonal changes in sex ratios, whereby early males compete to mate with high-fecundity females. The overproduction of Ae. triseriatus males may be counterbalanced by increased fitness of females, which are known to predominate in delayed hatches.

Distribution pattern of black fly (Diptera: Simuliidae) assemblages along an altitudinal gradient in Peninsular Malaysia

BACKGROUND

Preimaginal black flies (Diptera: Simuliidae) are important components of the stream ecosystem. However, there has been limited research undertaken on the vertical distribution of preimaginal black flies and their associated ecological factors. Stream conditions are generally variable along the altitudinal gradient. Therefore, we conducted an in-depth entomological survey to investigate the simuliid distribution pattern along an altitudinal gradient in Peninsular Malaysia.

METHODS

A total of 432 collections were performed in this study (24 samplings at each of 18 fixed-streams at monthly intervals) from February 2012 to January 2014. Larvae and pupae attached on aquatic substrates such as grasses, leaves and stems, twigs, plant roots and rocks were collected by hand using fine forceps. Stream depth (m), width (m), velocity (m/s), water temperature (°C), acidity (pH), conductivity (mS/cm) and dissolved oxygen (mg/L) were measured at the time of each collection.

RESULTS

A total of 35 black fly species were recorded in the present study. The most frequently collected species were Simulium tani (31.7%) and S. whartoni (21.5%), while the relatively common species were Simulium sp. (nr. feuerborni) (16.2%), S. decuplum (15.5%), S. angulistylum (14.8%), S. bishopi (13.2%) and S. izuae (11.8%). Total estimated species richness ranged between 39.8 and 41.3, which yielded more than 80% of sampling efficiency. Six simuliid species were distributed below 500 m, whereas eight species were distributed above 1400 m. Simulium sp. (nr. feuerborni) and S. asakoae were found from middle to high altitudes (711-1813 m). Simulium whartoni, S. brevipar and S. bishopi were distributed widely from low to high altitudes (159-1813 m). Regression analysis between species richness and PCs revealed that the species richness was significantly associated with wider, deeper and faster streams at low altitude, normal water temperature (23-25 °C), low conductivity, higher discharge, more canopy cover and riparian vegetation and with larger streambed particles (F = 20.8, df = 1, 422, P < 0.001). Forward logistic regression indicated four species were significantly related to the stream variables (S. whartoni, Simulium sp. (nr. feuerborni), S. tani and S. angulistylum). Canonical correspondence analysis indicated that the temperature, stream size and discharge were the most important factors contributing to the separation of the stream sites from different altitude and hence are the predictors for the distribution of black fly species assemblages.

CONCLUSIONS

This study has provided insight into the distribution pattern of preimaginal black fly assemblages along an altitudinal gradient in Peninsular Malaysia. This study could deepen our knowledge on the ecology and biology of the specialised taxa in response to environmental changes.

Identification of immature stages of phlebotomine sand flies using MALDI-TOF MS and mapping of mass spectra during sand fly life cycle

The aim of the study was to evaluate the potential of matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) for the species identification of sand flies at different developmental stages and map changes in their protein profiles during the course of whole life cycle. Specimens of six different species from laboratory colonies at larval and pupal stages were examined using MALDI-TOF MS. The protein profiles of larvae were stable from the L2 to L4 developmental stages and clearly distinguishable at the species level. In a validation study, 123 larvae of the six species were queried against reference database resulting in 93% correct species identification (log score values higher than 2.0). The spectra generated from sand fly pupae allow species identification as well and surprisingly, in contrast to biting midges and mosquitoes, they did not change during this developmental stage. For adults, thorax was revealed as the optimal body part for sample preparation yielding reproducible spectra regardless age and diet. Only variations were uncovered for freshly engorged females profiles of which were affected by blood signals first two days post bloodmeal. The findings demonstrate that in addition to adult species differentiation MALDI-TOF MS may also serve as a rapid and effective tool for species identification of juvenile stages of phlebotomine sand flies.

Haemagogus leucocelaenus and Other Mosquitoes Potentially Associated With Sylvatic Yellow Fever In Cantareira State Park In the São Paulo Metropolitan Area, Brazil

The aim of this work was to investigate whether Haemagogus leucocelaenus and other mosquito species associated with sylvatic transmission of yellow fever virus are present in Cantareira State Park (CSP) in the São Paulo Metropolitan Area (SPMA). From October 2015 to March 2016, adult mosquitoes were captured with the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention traps, manual battery-powered aspirators, and Shannon traps; larvae and pupae were collected in natural and artificial breeding sites. A total of 109 adult mosquito specimens and 30 immature forms belonging to 11 taxonomic categories in 4 genera (Aedes, Psorophora, Sabethes, and Haemagogus) were collected, including Hg. leucocelaenus, the main vector of yellow fever. The entomological findings of the present study indicate that the area is of strategic importance for yellow fever surveillance not only because of the significant numbers of humans and nonhuman primates circulating in CSP and its vicinity but also because it represents a potential route for the disease to be introduced to the SPMA.

A New Species of the Simulium (Simulium) striatum Species Group (Diptera: Simuliidae) from Thailand, and Its Differentiation from Two Related Species Based on a Fast-Evolving Nuclear Gene

Simulium (Simulium) phraense sp. nov. (Diptera: Simuliidae) is described from females, males, pupae, and larvae from Thailand. This new species is placed in the Simulium striatum species group and is most similar to Simulium (Simulium) nakhonense Takaoka & Suzuki (Diptera: Simuliidae) from Thailand among species of the same species group but is barely distinguished from the latter species by lacking annular ridges on the surface of the pupal gill filaments. The fast-evolving nuclear big zinc finger (BZF) gene has successfully differentiated this new species from its allies, S. (S.) nakhonense and Simulium (Simulium) chiangmaiense Takaoka & Suzuki (Diptera: Simuliidae) of the S. striatum species group. The BZF gene sequences show that this new species is more closely related to S. (S.) nakhonense than to S. (S.) chiangmaiense, further supporting its morphological classification.

Morphology of puparia of Megaselia scalaris (Diptera: Phoridae), a fly species of medical and forensic importance

Megaselia scalaris (Loew), a scuttle fly, is a fly species of medical and forensic importance. For use in forensic investigation, fly specimens found to associate with human corpses have to be identified at species level. Herein, we present the morphology of the puparia of the above fly species using scanning electron microscopy. The characteristic of the intersegmental spines along the dorsal and lateral segments and sculpture of the pupal respiratory horn of this puparia may be useful in future studies, to distinguish it from other closely related species.

Demographic trends in mixed Bemisia tabaci (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) cryptic species populations in commercial poinsettia under biological control- and insecticide-based management

Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) is an economically important pest of agricultural and ornamental plants worldwide and is now widely recognized as a cryptic species complex. In North America, B. tabaci is a particularly important pest of greenhouse poinsettia. In poinsettia production, two cryptic species from the B. tabaci complex, Mediterranean and Middle East Minor 1, often infest crops simultaneously. Differences in pesticide susceptibility between these two cryptic species have the potential to influence growers' management decisions, including the use of biological control or insecticides, and the choice of insecticide active ingredient. However, the demographic behavior of mixed-species infestations in commercial greenhouses has yet to be investigated. We conducted a survey of B. tabaci populations in commercial greenhouses in Ontario, Canada, and provide evidence that under biological control-based management, Middle East Minor 1 can displace Mediterranean, whereas under insecticide-based management Mediterranean populations will persist. Furthermore, we comment on implications of this behavior on the management of B. tabaci, and comment on methods used to identify B. tabaci cryptic species.

Three Taxa in One: Cryptic Diversity in the Black Fly Simulium nobile (Diptera: Simuliidae) in Southeast Asia

We access the molecular diversity of the black fly Simulium nobile De Mejiere, using the universal cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) barcoding gene, across its distributional range in Southeast Asia. Our phylogenetic analyses recovered three well-supported mitochondrial lineages of S. nobile, suggesting the presence of cryptic species. Lineage A is composed of a population from Sabah, East Malaysia (Borneo); lineage B represents the type population from Java, Indonesia; and lineage C includes populations from the mainland of Southeast Asia (Peninsular Malaysia and Thailand). The genetic variation of lineage C on the mainland is greater than that of lineages A and B on the islands of Borneo and Java. Our study highlights the value of a molecular approach in assessing species status of simuliids in geographically distinct regions.

Molecular data reveal a cryptic species within the Culex pipiens mosquito complex

The Culex pipiens mosquito complex is a group of evolutionarily closely related species including C. pipiens and Culex quinquefasciatus, both infected by the cytoplasmically inherited Wolbachia symbiont. A Wolbachia-uninfected population of C. pipiens was however described in South Africa and was recently proposed to represent a cryptic species. In this study, we reconsidered the existence of this species by undertaking an extensive screening for the presence of Wolbachia-uninfected C. pipiens specimens and by characterizing their genetic relatedness with known members of the complex. We first report on the presence of Wolbachia-uninfected specimens in several breeding sites. We next confirm that these uninfected specimens unambiguously belong to the C. pipiens complex. Remarkably, all uninfected specimens harbour mitochondrial haplotypes that are either novel or identical to those previously found in South Africa. In all cases, these mitochondrial haplotypes are closely related, but different, to those found in other C. pipiens complex members known to be infected by Wolbachia. Altogether, these results corroborate the presence of a widespread cryptic species within the C. pipiens species complex. The potential role of this cryptic C. pipiens species in the transmission of pathogens remains however to be determined. The designation 'Culex juppi nov. sp.' is proposed for this mosquito species.

Response to cold acclimation in diapause pupae of Hyles euphorbiae (Lepidoptera: Sphingidae): candidate biomarker identification using proteomics

The distribution range of Hyles euphorbiae covers distinct climates across the Palaearctic. Previous investigations showed a correlation between mitochondrial DNA identity of populations and climatic conditions related to winter; however, the lack of biomarkers hampers investigations to test whether geographically distinct populations do show specific molecular responses to low temperatures or whether they possess specific genetic identity at loci functionally related to cold response. The present study was designed to identify candidate protein biomarkers and biological processes that are associated with cold acclimation of overwintering H. euphorbiae diapause pupae. Specimens taken from a single central European population were gradually cooled from 20 °C to -2 °C over 36 days and 12 differentially abundant proteins were identified. In addition, DeepSuperSAGE sequencing technology was applied to study differentially regulated genes. There was incongruence between differentially abundant proteins and differentially expressed genes, but functional characteristics of regulated proteins and analyses of gene ontology term enrichment among differentially regulated genes pointed to activation of the same biological processes, e.g. oxidative stress response. As proteins represent biologically active molecules, candidate biomarkers derived from proteomics are considered well suited to explore intraspecific patterns of local adaptation to different climates.

Development and parasitism by Aphelinus certus (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae), a parasitoid of Aphis glycines (Hemiptera: Aphididae)

Since its introduction in 2000, the soybean aphid (Aphis glycines Matsumura) has been a serious pest of soybean in North America. Currently, insecticide application is the only recommended control method. However, a number of natural enemies have the potential to regulate soybean aphid populations. In 2007, Aphelinus certus Yasnosh, a soybean aphid parasitoid native to Asia, was found in commercial soybean fields in Ontario. This is the first record of this species in North America. To evaluate the potential biological control services provided by A. certus for soybean aphid management, temperature-dependent developmental parameters and functional response to soybean aphid were determined. A. certus is capable of completing its development between temperatures of 15.3 and 30.2°C. The lower thresholds of development for the egg-mummy and mummy-adult life stages were determined to be 9.1 and 11.6°C, respectively. The lethal temperature of development for the egg-mummy and mummy-adult life stages were 29.5 and 31.0°C, respectively. In this temperature range, A. certus did not exhibit temperature-dependent mortality; however, parasitism rate increased with temperature. A. certus exhibited a type II functional response to the soybean aphid.

Confirmation of the species status of the blackfly Simulium galeratum in Britain using molecular taxonomy

Since 1920 Simulium reptans (Linnaeus) (Diptera: Simuliidae) has been reported as exhibiting two different larval morphotypes, a typical S. reptans and an atypical S. reptans var. galeratum, which differ in the markings of the larval head capsule. Inconsistent variation in adults and no apparent variation in the pupae have led taxonomists to conclude that these types in Britain are a single species. We investigated populations in Britain where either the typical form or var. galeratum is found, and one population where the two exist sympatrically. A phylogenetic study based upon a region of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase 1 gene (DNA barcoding) produced a tree that delineated the morphotypes into two distinct monophyletic clades. The average Kimura-2-parameter distances within each clade (i.e. within each morphotype) were very low (0.67% and 0.78%), with the distances between morphotypes being 9-10-fold greater (mean 7.06%). This is concordant with differences within and between species in other taxa; based upon the strict correlation between the molecular variation and the morphotypes, we propose the re-instatement of S. galeratum to species status.

A new species of the Simulium (Gomphostilbia) (Diptera: Simuliidae) from Thailand, with its phylogenetic relationships with related species in the Simulium asakoae species-group

A new species of black fly, Simulium (Gomphostilbia) rampae, is described, based on adult male, its pupal exuviae and mature larvae collected from Doi Inthanon National Park, northern Thailand. This new species is placed in the Simulium asakoae species-group, and is characterized in the male by the high number of upper-eye facets in 17 vertical columns and 18 horizontal rows, in the pupa by the gill with a long common basal stalk, cone-shaped terminal hook, and cocoon with an anterodorsal projection, and in the larva by the medium-long postgenal cleft. A DNA analysis using COI gene supported its assignment to the S. asakoae species-group and showed its close relationship to S. (G.) udomi Takaoka & Choochote and S. (G.) chiangdaoense Takaoka & Srisuka. This is the fourth member of the S. asakoae species-group recorded from Thailand.

Characterization and Identification of Puparia of Hydrotaea Robineau-Desvoidy, 1830 (Diptera: Muscidae) From Forensic and Archaeological Contexts

Flies and beetles are the main components of the entomofauna colonizing a body after death. Following the recognition of constant and predictable colonization patterns and the knowledge about the dependence of the insect development to temperature, a new discipline, forensic entomology, has provided information useful to reconstruct criminal events. Funerary archaeoentomology has also applied the same rationale in archaeological contexts. Puparia represent a large fraction of the insect remains that can be found associated with a cadaver, especially when the body is mummified or in the advanced stages of decomposition. Puparium identification is still a problematic topic due to the lack of identification keys and, in several cases, a lack of diagnostic feature descriptions. Here, we focus the attention on some Hydrotaea Robineau-Desvoidy (Diptera, Muscidae) puparia from forensic and archaeological contexts. Puparia of Hydrotaea capensis (Wiedemann), Hydrotaea ignava (Harris), Hydrotaea aenescens (Wiedemann), Hydrotaea similis Meade, Hydrotaea pilipes Stein, and Hydrotaea dentipes (Fabricius) are here detailed and illustrated. Posterior spiracles, anal plate, and intersegmental spines have been considered as good diagnostic characters for the identification of these puparia.

Mating compatibility between Bactrocera invadens and Bactrocera dorsalis (Diptera: Tephritidae)

The invasive fruit fly, Bactrocera invadens Drew, Tsuruta & White, is a highly polyphagous fruit pest that occurs predominantly in Africa yet has its origins in the Indian subcontinent. It is extremely morphologically and genetically similar to the Oriental fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel); as such the specific relationship between these two species is unresolved. We assessed prezygotic compatibility between B. dorsalis and B. invadens using standardized field cage mating tests, which have proven effectiveness in tephritid cryptic species studies. These tests were followed by an assessment of postzygotic compatibility by examining egg viability, larval and pupal survival, and sex ratios of offspring produced from parental and subsequent F1 crosses to examine for hybrid breakdown as predicted under a two-species hypothesis. B. dorsalis was sourced from two countries (Pakistan and China), and each population was compared with B. invadens from its type locality of Kenya. B. invadens mated randomly with B. dorsalis from both localities, and there were generally high levels of hybrid viability and survival resulting from parental and F1 crosses. Furthermore, all but one hybrid cross resulted in equal sex ratios, with the single deviation in favor of males and contrary to expectations under Haldane's rule. These data support the hypothesis that B. dorsalis and B. invadens represent the same biological species, an outcome that poses significant implications for pest management and international trade for sub-Saharan Africa.

An update of mosquitoes of Argentine Patagonia with new distribution records

The objective of this study was to update mosquito species distribution in Argentine Patagonia based on new field collections and to examine the material deposited in the La Plata Museum. Culex coronator, Cx. brethesi, and Cx. castroi represented new records for the region, increasing mosquito fauna of Patagonia to 15 species. The expansion of the geographic distribution of Cx. apicinus, Cx. articularis, and Cx. eduardoi at the province level was also provided. Current knowledge about mosquito fauna of Patagonia is restricted mainly to geographic distribution records. Further studies on the bionomic of mosquito species in Patagonian conditions are needed.

Annotated checklist of the mosquitoes of the Republic of Moldova

The mosquito fauna of the Republic of Moldova is poorly known. In an effort to understand the Culicidae fauna better, mosquito collections have been conducted between early April and middle November from 2008 to 2012. A total of 10,923 larval specimens and 8,246 adults were collected from 20 regions of Moldova. Altogether 36 species have been recorded during the recent study, bringing the total Moldovan mosquito fauna to 40 species in 9 genera and 11 subgenera. New state records include the following 7 species: Anopheles pseudopictus, An. melanoon, Aedes geminus, Culex torrentium, Culiseta longiareolata, Coquillettidia buxtoni, and Uranotaenia unguiculata.

Armored Scales and Their Parasitoids on Commercial Avocados Grown in California or Imported from Mexico

Levels of armored scales (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) on Mexican Hass avocados imported into California over May 2008-June 2009 were monitored on 135 trucks entering the state via the Blythe border station, the entry point receiving the highest volume of fruit. Levels of live sessile scales were 3.9-fold higher than indicated in a previous survey (September 2007-April 2008) although levels of live eggs and crawlers were similar to previous levels. A survey of avocado fruit in California infested with armored scales detected four species known to be endemic but failed to find any of the seven exotic Diaspididae entering the state on Mexican fruit. Monitoring of Mexican armored scales on imported avocados from September 2007 to December 2010 recovered 10 species of parasitoids predominated by two species of Signiphora Ashmead (Hymenoptera: Signiphoridae). One of these species, Signiphora flavopalliata Ashmead, comprised 36% of all collected Mexican parasitoids and is a known hyperparasitoid. A survey of armored scale parasitoids present on commercial California avocados detected 17 genetic signatures, with only four of these in common with those detected on imported Mexican fruit. The implications of these findings are discussed.

A morphological study of the Anopheles punctulatus group (Diptera: Culicidae) in the Solomon Islands, with a description of Anopheles (Cellia) irenicus Schmidt, sp.n

A description of Anopheles (Cellia) irenicus Schmidt, sp.n. (formerly A. farauti No. 7) is provided. This species is one of six recorded from the Solomon Islands within the A. punctulatus group, which contains the major vectors of the causative agents of malaria and lymphatic filariasis in the southwest Pacific. Morphological markers are described for adult females, fourth-instar larvae and pupae that identify most specimens of A. irenicus. Keys are presented to distinguish members of the A. punctulatus group in the Solomon Islands.

New records of 13 species of black flies (Diptera: Simuliidae) from Myanmar

A faunistic survey of black flies in Shan State, central Myanmar, was carried out in 2013. A total of 16 species were collected, of which 13 species are newly recorded from Myanmar. Among 13 newly recorded species, S. (S.) chiangmaiense Takaoka & Suzuki varied in the number of pupal gill filaments from eight to 10. This survey increases the number of species of black flies from Myanmar from 8 to 23. They are classified in five subgenera of the genus Simulium: one in Asiosimulium, seven in Gomphostilbia, one in Montisimulium, two in Nevermannia and 12 in Simulium.

Colonization of Coquillettidia linealis (Skuse) with reference to other Coquillettidia and Mansonia species

The immature stages of Coquillettidia and Mansonia mosquitoes are cryptic and spend the duration of their development attached to the tissues of subsurface aquatic plants. This obligatory association makes them difficult to collect and has precluded detailed investigation of the biology of Coquillettidia linealis, a species of significant pest and vector status in Australia, as well as other species in the genus Coquillettidia in Australia and elsewhere. This paper describes the first successful establishment and maintenance of a colony of Cq. linealis. Blood-seeking wild adults were collected and induced to oviposit under laboratory conditions, where methods were developed to rear larval populations to adult maturity in a colony that was maintained through eight successive generations. Colonies of Coquillettidia xanthogaster and Coquillettidia sp. nr crassipes were also established and reared through at least six generations and five generations, respectively, while two species of Mansonia, Mansonia uniformis and Mansonia septempunctata, were also reared successfully for six and two generations, respectively.

Delimitation and description of the immature stages of a pollinating fig wasp, Ceratosolen solmsi marchali Mayr (Hymenoptera: Agaonidae)

The mutualism between fig trees and their wasp pollinators is a model system for many ecological and evolutionary studies. However, the immature stages of pollinating fig wasps have rarely been studied. We monitored developing fig wasps of known ages and performed a series of dissections at 24 h intervals to identify key developmental traits of Ceratosolen solmsi marchali Mayr (Hymenoptera: Agaonidae), a pollinator of Ficus hispida L. (Moraceae). We identified where in the Ficus ovary eggs were deposited and time to hatch. We were also able to identify the timing and key underlying characters of five larval instars, three sub-pupal stages, and a single prepupal stage. We provide detailed morphological descriptions for the key stages and report some behavioral observations of the wasps in the several developmental stages we recorded. Scanning electron microscope images were taken.