Trace level determination of perchlorate in water matrices and human urine using ESI-FAIMS-MS

High-field asymmetric waveform ion mobility spectrometry (FAIMS) separates perchlorate from interfering isobaric ions of bisulfate and dihydrogenphosphate in the gas-phase. The use of a new FAIMS prototype and waveform generator, along with the use of a mixed carrier gas, in this electrospray ionisation (ESI)-FAIMS-mass spectrometry (MS) study gave a detection limit for perchlorate in a relatively "clean" matrix of tap water of 0.050 ppb. Flow injection analysis (FIA) of dilutions of fortified waste water, a fortified river water certified reference material (CRM; SLRS-4, National Research Council of Canada), and a fortified human urine Standard Reference Material (SRM; 2381, National Institute of Standards and Technology) gave detection limits of 0.37 ppb, 0.50 ppb, and 4.8 ppb, respectively, in the undiluted matrices.

Role of glutathione in reduction of arsenate and of γ-glutamyltranspeptidase in disposition of arsenite in rats

Arsenate (AsV), the environmentally prevalent form of arsenic, is converted sequentially in the body to arsenite (AsIII), monomethylarsonic acid (MMAsV), monomethylarsonous acid (MMAsIII), and dimethylarsinic acid (DMAsV) and some trimethylated metabolites. Although the biliary excretion of arsenic in rats is known to be glutathione (GSH)-dependent, involving transport of arsenic-GSH conjugates, the role of GSH in the reduction of AsV to the more toxic AsIII in vivo has not been defined. Therefore, we studied how the fate of AsV is influenced by buthionine sulfoximine (BSO), which depletes GSH in tissues. Control and BSO-treated rats were given AsV (50 micromol/kg, i.v.) and arsenic metabolites in bile, urine, blood and tissues were analysed by HPLC-HG-AFS. BSO increased retention of AsV in blood and tissues and decreased appearance of AsIII in blood, bile (by 96%) and urine (by 63%). The biliary excretion of MMAsIII was also nearly abolished, the appearance of MMAsIII and MMAsV in the blood was delayed and the renal concentrations of these monomethylated arsenicals were decreased by BSO. Interestingly, appearance of DMAsV in blood and urine remained unchanged and the concentrations of this metabolite in the kidneys and muscle were even increased in response to BSO. To test the role of gamma-glutamyltranspeptidase (GGT) in arsenic disposition, the effect of the of the GGT inhibitor acivicin was investigated in rats injected with AsIII (50 micromol/kg, i.v.). Acivicin lowered the hepatic and renal GGT activities and increased the biliary as well as urinary excretion of GSH, but failed to alter the disposition (i.e. blood and tissue concentrations, biliary and urinary excretion) of AsIII and its metabolites. In conclusion, shortage of GSH decreases not only the hepatobiliary transport of arsenic, but also reduction of AsV and the formation of monomethylated arsenic, while not hindering the production of dimethylated arsenic. While GSH plays an important role in the disposition and toxicity of arsenic, GGT, which hydrolyses GSH and GSH conjugates, apparently does not influence the fate of the GSH-reactive trivalent arsenicals in rats.

Changes in Serum Adiponectin in Mice Chronically Exposed to Inorganic Arsenic in Drinking Water

Cardiovascular disease and diabetes mellitus are prominent features of glucose and lipid metabolism disorders. Adiponectin is a key adipokine that is largely involved in glucose and lipid metabolism processes. A growing body of evidence suggests that chronic exposure to inorganic arsenic is associated with cardiovascular disease and diabetes mellitus. We hypothesized that arsenic exposure may increase the risk of cardiovascular disease and diabetes mellitus by affecting the level of adiponectin. In this study, we examined serum adiponectin levels, as well as serum levels of metabolic measures (including fasting blood glucose, insulin, total cholesterol, triglyceride, and high-density lipoprotein (HDL)-cholesterol) in C57BL/6 mice exposed to inorganic arsenic in drinking water (5 and 50 ppm NaAsO₂) for 18 weeks. Body mass and adiposity were monitored throughout the study. We found no significant changes in serum insulin and glucose levels in mice treated with arsenic for 18 weeks. However, arsenic exposure decreased serum levels of adiponectin, triglyceride, and HDL-cholesterol. Further, an inverse relationship was observed between urinary concentrations of total arsenic and serum levels of adiponectin. This study suggests that arsenic exposure could disturb the metabolism of lipids and increase the risk of cardiovascular disease by reducing the level of adiponectin.

Absorption of inorganic, trivalent and hexavalent chromium following oral and intrajejunal doses in rats

The intestinal absorption of trivalent and hexavalent chromium (Cr) given orally (experiment I) or infused in the intestine (experiment II) was investigated in rats. The nonabsorbable form of chromium (51Cr2O3) and water-soluble and more absorbable Na2(51)CrO4 (the hexavalent form of Cr) were compared. Total retention of chromium given orally ranged around 15 percent of the dose, regardless of the chromium compounds applied. The absorption rate of chromic oxide, which is considered a nonabsorbable compound, was 14.4 as a percentage of chromium intake. This result indicates that some loss of chromium has to be taken into account in metabolic trials made by the indicator method. In isolated rat intestine, from the injected Cr 2.5% of chromic oxide and 43.2% of sodium chromate were absorbed during an hour (experiment II). The absorbed chromium was transferred to the liver where the liver tissue retained 10.9% of chromic oxide and 51.1% of sodium chromate. Radioactivity of v. cava caudalis following intestinal injection of Na2CrO4 was thirtyfold greater than after Cr2O3 dosing. This phenomenon can be explained by the lower blood clearance of chromate. Different absorption rate of chromate depending on the route of administration could be due to the fact that the hexavalent form given orally was reduced to Cr3+ in the acidic environment of the stomach. When Na2CrO4 was infused directly in the intestine of rats, such reduction could not occur. This means that the acidic gastric juice might play a role in inhibiting the intestinal absorption of Na2CrO4 when this compound is given orally.

Pretreatment with periodate-oxidized adenosine enhances developmental toxicity of inorganic arsenic in mice

BACKGROUND

Inorganic arsenic, given by injection to pregnant laboratory animals, can induce malformations. Arsenic methylation can be inhibited by periodate-oxidized adenosine (PAD). Severe human health effects from high chronic arsenic exposure have mainly been reported in populations with significant levels of malnutrition, which may enhance toxicity by diminishing arsenic methylating capacity. This study sought to determine the effect of inhibition of arsenic methylation on the developmental toxicity of arsenic in a mammalian model.

METHODS

PAD (100 microM/kg, i.p.), was given to pregnant CD-1 strain mice 30 min before 7.5mg/kg sodium arsenite [As(III)], i.p., or 17.9 mg/kg sodium arsenate [As(V)], i.p., on gestation day 8 (GD 8; copulation plug = GD 0). Control dams received As(III), As(V), or PAD alone or were untreated. Test dams were killed on GD 17, and their litters were examined for mortality and gross and skeletal defects.

RESULTS

Pretreatment with PAD before either arsenical resulted in increased maternal toxicity and lower fetal weights. Pretreatment also caused higher prenatal mortality, with 8 of 21 and 5 of 17 litters totally resorbed in the PAD plus As(III) and PAD plus As(V) treatment groups, respectively. Significant increases in the incidences of exencephaly, ablepharia, and anomalies of the vertebral centra, sternebrae, and ribs were also associated with PAD pretreatment. Short tail (3 fetuses in 3 litters) was seen only following PAD plus As(III) treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

These results demonstrate that the developmental toxicity of inorganic arsenic can be enhanced by PAD, due possibly to inhibited methylation of arsenic.

Ammonium and sodium urates precipitating from synthetic urine and fine structure of urate renal calculi

A study of ammonium and sodium urate precipitation in vitro and the fine structure of several urate renal calculi was carried out to contribute to an understanding of the participation of ammonium and sodium urates in urolithiasis. Ammonium urate precipitated in vitro in two different morphologies: a typical spherulite morphology formed at high supersaturation and disorganized needle-like crystals formed at low supersaturation. In all cases sodium urate precipitated in vitro as bundles of curved fibrils, its crystallization being inhibited by calcium in concentrations between 20 and 60 mg/l depending on the sodium urate supersaturation. From a collection of 1300 renal calculi, only three had ammonium urate as their main component (0.2%), three were mixed calculi (0.2%) consisting of ammonium urate and calcium oxalate (two) or uric acid (one), and in one calculus ammonium urate was present as a minor component. Only in a mixed calculus of uric acid and calcium oxalate was sodium urate detected in a very low quantity. The study of the fine structure of the renal calculi constituted mainly by ammonium urate demonstrated similar patterns in which spherulites, needle-like individual crystals and an amorphous mass of ammonium urate with abundant organic matter in non-organized structures coexist. As minor components, struvite or calcium oxalate crystals were found. A general mechanism of the formation of such calculi is proposed.