Identification of genes in Thuja plicata foliar terpenoid defenses

Thuja plicata (western redcedar) is a long-lived conifer species whose foliage is rarely affected by disease or insect pests, but can be severely damaged by ungulate browsing. Deterrence to browsing correlates with high foliar levels of terpenoids, in particular the monoterpenoid α-thujone. Here, we set out to identify genes whose products may be involved in the production of α-thujone and other terpenoids in this species. First, we generated a foliar transcriptome database from which to draw candidate genes. Second, we mapped the storage of thujones and other terpenoids to foliar glands. Third, we used global expression profiling to identify more than 600 genes that are expressed at high levels in foliage with glands, but can either not be detected or are expressed at low levels in a natural variant lacking foliar glands. Fourth, we used in situ RNA hybridization to map the expression of a putative monoterpene synthase to the epithelium of glands and used enzyme assays with recombinant protein of the same gene to show that it produces sabinene, the monoterpene precursor of α-thujone. Finally, we identified candidate genes with predicted enzymatic functions for the conversion of sabinene to α-thujone. Taken together, this approach generated both general resources and detailed functional characterization in the identification of genes of foliar terpenoid biosynthesis in T. plicata.

Exploring the Formation of a Disjunctive Pattern between Eastern Asia and North America Based on Fossil Evidence from Thuja (Cupressaceae)

Thuja, a genus of Cupressaceae comprising five extant species, presently occurs in both East Asia (3 species) and North America (2 species) and has a long fossil record from Paleocene to Pleistocene in the Northern Hemisphere. Two distinct hypotheses have been proposed to account for the origin and present distribution of this genus. Here we recognize and describe T. sutchuenensis Franch., a new fossil Thuja from the late Pliocene sediments of Zhangcun, Shanxi, North China, based on detailed comparisons with all living species and other fossil ones, integrate the global fossil records of this genus plotted in a set of paleomaps from different time intervals, which show that Thuja probably first appeared at high latitudes of North America in or before the Paleocene. This genus reached Greenland in the Paleocene, then arrived in eastern Asia in the Miocene via the land connection between East Asia and western North America. In the late Pliocene, it migrated into the interior of China. With the Quaternary cooling and drying, Thuja gradually retreated southwards to form today's disjunctive distribution between East Asia and North America.

Efflux and assimilation of xylem-transported CO2 in stems and leaves of tree species with different wood anatomy

Determining the fate of CO₂ respired in woody tissues is necessary to understand plant respiratory physiology and to evaluate CO₂ recycling mechanisms. An aqueous ¹³ C-enriched CO₂ solution was infused into the stem of 3-4 m tall trees to estimate efflux and assimilation of xylem-transported CO₂ via cavity ring-down laser spectroscopy and isotope ratio mass spectrometry, respectively. Different tree locations (lower stem, upper stem and leafy shoots) and tissues (xylem, bark and leaves) were monitored in species with tracheid, diffuse- and ring-porous wood anatomy (cedar, maple and oak, respectively). Radial xylem CO₂ diffusivity and xylem [CO₂ ] were lower in cedar relative to maple and oak trees, thereby limiting label diffusion. Part of the labeled ¹³ CO₂ was assimilated in cedar (8.7%) and oak (20.6%) trees, mostly in xylem and bark tissues of the stem, while limited solution uptake in maple trees hindered the detection of label assimilation. Little label reached foliar tissues, suggesting substantial label loss along the stem-branch transition following reductions in the radial diffusive pathway. Differences in respiration rates and radial xylem CO₂ diffusivity (lower in conifer relative to angiosperm species) might reconcile discrepancies in efflux and assimilation of xylem-transported CO₂ so far observed between taxonomic clades.

Plant light interception can be explained via computed tomography scanning: demonstration with pyramidal cedar (Thuja occidentalis, Fastigiata)

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Light interception by the leaf canopy is a key aspect of plant photosynthesis, which helps mitigate the greenhouse effect via atmospheric CO(2) recycling. The relationship between plant light interception and leaf area was traditionally modelled with the Beer-Lambert law, until the spatial distribution of leaves was incorporated through the fractal dimension of leafless plant structure photographed from the side allowing maximum appearance of branches and petioles. However, photographs of leafless plants are two-dimensional projections of three-dimensional structures, and sampled plants were cut at the stem base before leaf blades were detached manually, so canopy development could not be followed for individual plants. Therefore, a new measurement and modelling approach were developed to explain plant light interception more completely and precisely, based on appropriate processing of computed tomography (CT) scanning data collected for developing canopies.

METHODS

Three-dimensional images of canopies were constructed from CT scanning data. Leaf volumes (LV) were evaluated from complete canopy images, and fractal dimensions (FD) were estimated from skeletonized leafless images. The experimental plant species is pyramidal cedar (Thuja occidentalis, Fastigiata).

KEY RESULTS

The three-dimensional version of the Beer-Lambert law based on FD alone provided a much better explanation of plant light interception (R(2) = 0.858) than those using the product LV*FD (0.589) or LV alone (0.548). While values of all three regressors were found to increase over time, FD in the Beer-Lambert law followed the increase in light interception the most closely. The delayed increase of LV reflected the appearance of new leaves only after branches had lengthened and ramified.

CONCLUSIONS

The very strong correlation obtained with FD demonstrates that CT scanning data contain fundamental information about the canopy architecture geometry. The model can be used to identify crops and plantation trees with improved light interception and productivity.

Transfusion tracheids in the conifer leaves of Thuja plicata (Cupressaceae) are derived from parenchyma and their differentiation is induced by auxin

PREMISE OF THE STUDY

Conifer leaves are characterized by the differentiation of transfusion tracheids either adjacent to the vascular bundle or away from bundles. Toward uncovering the mechanism regulating this differentiation, we tested the hypotheses that transfusion tracheids differentiate from parenchyma rather than from procambium and that auxin acts as an inducer of this process. •

METHODS

Transfusion tracheids were studied at different developmental stages in both dissected and cleared juvenile and mature leaves. Auxin accumulation was induced by application of either auxin to juvenile leaves or of auxin transport inhibitors in lanolin to stems. •

KEY RESULTS

Transfusion tracheids originate from parenchyma cells during late stages of leaf development, after the activity of the procambium has ceased. Transfusion tracheids differentiate also in the leaf tip, a region in which there are no procambial cells. Application of either auxin or auxin transport inhibitors resulted in a significant increase in transfusion tracheids in leaves. Disruption of the leaf vascular bundle combined with auxin application resulted in direct differentiation of transfusion tracheids from parenchyma cells; the regeneration of a vascular bundle around the disruption was polar and supports both hypotheses. •

CONCLUSIONS

The results provide experimental support for a parenchymatic origin of the transfusion tracheids in a conifer leaf and for auxin acting as an inducer of these cells. Our results suggest a new model in which auxin production in the leaf apex continues after primary tracheids and parenchyma cells have differentiated, and this late auxin flow induces transfusion tracheids from parenchyma cells.

Branch and foliage morphological plasticity in old-growth Thuja plicata

At the Wind River Canopy Crane Facility in southeastern Washington State, USA, we examined phenotypic variation between upper- and lower-canopy branches of old-growth Thuja plicata J. Donn ex D. Don (western red cedar). Lower-canopy branches were longer, sprouted fewer daughter branches per unit stem length and were more horizontal than upper-canopy branches. Thuja plicata holds its foliage in fronds, and these had less projected area per unit mass, measured by specific frond area, and less overlap, measured by silhouette to projected area ratio (SPARmax), in the lower canopy than in the upper canopy. The value of SPARmax, used as an indicator of sun and shade foliage in needle-bearing species, did not differ greatly between upper- and lower-canopy branches. We suggest that branching patterns, as well as frond structure, are important components of morphological plasticity in T. plicata. Our results imply that branches of old-growth T. plicata trees have a guerilla growth pattern, responding to changes in solar irradiance in a localized manner.

[Life form spectra, leaf character, and hierarchical-synusia structure of vascular plants in Thuja sutchuehensis community]

Based on the investigation of the plants in Thuja sutchuenensis community, the life form spectra, leaf character, and hierarchical-synusia structure in the community were analyzed. The life form spectra of the plants in the community were 73.2% of phanemphyte, 18% of hemicryptophyte, 6% of geophyte, 2% of chamaephyte, and 0.8% of annual plants. The leaf quality was mainly of papery and conaceous, which occupied 48. 8% and 36. 4% , respectively. The dominant leaf size was microphy (60.8%), dominant leaf margin was un-entire (56.8%), and dominant leaf form was simple (86%). The T. sutchuenensis community had three sub-layers, i.e., tree layer, shrub layer, and herb layer, with lesser interlayer plants. Each layer was respectively composed by phanemphyte evergreen coniferophyte, broadleaf and deciduous broad-leaf plants, nanophanerophyte evergreen and deciduous broad-leaf plants, as well as hemicryptophyte, geophyte, and annual plants.