MultiFuseYOLO: Redefining Wine Grape Variety Recognition through Multisource Information Fusion

Based on the current research on the wine grape variety recognition task, it has been found that traditional deep learning models relying only on a single feature (e.g., fruit or leaf) for classification can face great challenges, especially when there is a high degree of similarity between varieties. In order to effectively distinguish these similar varieties, this study proposes a multisource information fusion method, which is centered on the SynthDiscrim algorithm, aiming to achieve a more comprehensive and accurate wine grape variety recognition. First, this study optimizes and improves the YOLOV7 model and proposes a novel target detection and recognition model called WineYOLO-RAFusion, which significantly improves the fruit localization precision and recognition compared with YOLOV5, YOLOX, and YOLOV7, which are traditional deep learning models. Secondly, building upon the WineYOLO-RAFusion model, this study incorporated the method of multisource information fusion into the model, ultimately forming the MultiFuseYOLO model. Experiments demonstrated that MultiFuseYOLO significantly outperformed other commonly used models in terms of precision, recall, and F1 score, reaching 0.854, 0.815, and 0.833, respectively. Moreover, the method improved the precision of the hard to distinguish Chardonnay and Sauvignon Blanc varieties, which increased the precision from 0.512 to 0.813 for Chardonnay and from 0.533 to 0.775 for Sauvignon Blanc. In conclusion, the MultiFuseYOLO model offers a reliable and comprehensive solution to the task of wine grape variety identification, especially in terms of distinguishing visually similar varieties and realizing high-precision identifications.

What's in this drink? Classification and adulterant detection in Irish Whiskey samples using near infrared spectroscopy combined with chemometrics

BACKGROUND

Near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy coupled with principal component analysis (PCA) and partial least squares (PLS) regression was used to analyse a series of different Irish Whiskey samples in order to define their spectral profile and to assess the capability of the NIR method to identify samples based on their origin and storage (e.g. distiller, method of maturation). The ability of NIR spectroscopy to quantify the level of potential chemical adulterants was also investigated. Samples were spiked with 0.1%, 0.5%, 1.0%, 1.5% and 2.0% v/v of each adulterant (e.g. methanol, ethyl acetate, etc.) prior to NIR analysis.

RESULTS

The results of this study demonstrated the capability of NIR spectroscopy combined with PLS regression to classify the whiskey samples and to determine the level of adulteration. Moreover, the potential of NIR coupled with chemometric analysis as a rapid, portable, and non-destructive screening tool for quality control, traceability, and food/beverage adulteration for customs and other regulatory agencies, to mitigate beverage fraud was illustrated.

CONCLUSION

Given the non-specificity of the NIR technique, these positive preliminary results indicated that this method of analysis has the potential to be applied to identify the level of adulteration in distilled spirits. The rapid nature of the technique and lack of consumables or sample preparation required allows for a far more time and cost-effective analysis per sample. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.

Use of Untargeted Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry Metabolome To Discriminate Italian Monovarietal Red Wines, Produced in Their Different Terroirs

The aim of this project was to register, in a liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry-based untargeted single-batch analysis, the metabolome of 11 single-cultivar, single-vintage Italian red wines (Aglianico, Cannonau, Corvina, Montepulciano, Nebbiolo, Nerello, Primitivo, Raboso, Sagrantino, Sangiovese, and Teroldego) from 12 regions across Italy, each one produced in their terroirs under ad hoc legal frameworks to guarantee their quality and origin. The data provided indications regarding the similarity between the cultivars and highlighted a rich list of putative biomarkers of origin wines (pBOWs) characterizing each individual cultivar-terroir combination, where Primitivo, Teroldego, and Nebbiolo had the maximum number of unique pBOWs. The pBOWs included anthocyanins (Teroldego), flavanols (Aglianico, Sangiovese, Nerello, and Nebbiolo), amino acids and N-containing metabolites (Primitivo), hydroxycinnamates (Cannonau), and flavonols (Sangiovese). The raw data generated in this study are publicly available and, therefore, accessible and reusable as a baseline data set for future investigations.

HPLC-MS/MS-based targeted metabolomic method for profiling of malvidin derivatives in dry red wines

Anthocyanin derivatives are critical components that impart color to aging red wine. In this study, we developed a targeted metabolomic method for the simultaneously profiling of the primary thirty-seven malvidin-derived anthocyanin derivatives in red wine, including various pyranoanthocyanins and flavanols-related condensation products. First, high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) tandem ion trap and triple-quadrupole (QqQ) mass spectrometry were used to construct the mass spectral and chromatographic database of the anthocyanin derivatives that were formed in a model wine solution. Next, the targeted profiling analysis of these compounds was achieved on a QqQ mass spectrometer in the multiple reaction monitoring mode (MRM). The method displayed excellent linearity (R² 0.9391-0.9998), sensitivity (0.221-0.604 μg/L of limit of detection (LOD) and 0.274-1.157 μg/L of limit of quantification (LOQ) equivalent to malvidin-3-O-glucoside (Mv-glc)), and repeatability (less than 10% and 15% for intra-day and inter-day relative standard deviation (RSD) respectively). Partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) based on this method showed great discrimination over different vintage wines, thereby promising to be an effective tool in wine anthocyanin and aging related study.

Comparison of Different Categories of Slovak Tokaj Wines in Terms of Profiles of Volatile Organic Compounds

The present work deals with the characterization of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in wines from the Slovak Tokaj wine region. Studied wine samples were divided into three groups—varietal wines from registered Tokaj vine varieties, film wines Tokajské samorodné dry, and naturally sweet botrytized wines Tokaj selections. The VOCs from wines were extracted using optimized solid phase microextraction (SPME) and analyzed by comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography (GC×GC) coupled to high-resolution time-of-flight mass spectrometry (HRTOF-MS). In total, 176 VOCs were identified in all 46 studied samples. It was found that the total number of VOCs in varietal wines was generally higher than in botrytized wines. All three studied categories showed characteristic VOC profiles with significant differences. Varietal wines were characterized by higher concentrations of esters and terpenoids originating from grapes. The presence of γ-octalactone, (E)-6-methylhept-2-en-4-one, and lack of benzaldehyde were typical for Tokajské samorodné dry. Tokaj selections expressed the highest concentration of diethyl malate, benzaldehyde, and furfurals. Several interesting trends were also observed. The concentration of fermentation products was highest in varietal wines, while long-term matured Tokaj special wines were typified by the presence of compounds related to noble-rotten raisins (2-phenylacetaldehyde, ethyl 2-phenylacetate, and 2-phenylethanol), wood (cis-whisky lactone), and aging (1,1,6-trimethyl-2H-naphthalene, furfural, and 5-methylfurfural).

Resurgence of minority and autochthonous grapevine varieties in South America: a review of their oenological potential

In contrast with the general trend of producing wine from the most famous grapevine varieties, associated with the French paradigm, such as Cabernet-Sauvignon, Merlot, Pinot Noir, Syrah, Sauvignon Blanc, and Chardonnay, there is a tendency to revalorize and preserve minority or autochthonous grapevine varieties worldwide. The South American wine region, where most of the varieties derived from varieties brought after European colonization, is not exempt from this. This has allowed new wines to be provided with distinctive identities that are markedly different from the current homogeneous wine production. Moreover, varietal homogenization increases vineyard genetic vulnerability in relation to the emergence of grapevine diseases, to which the commonly cultivated varieties are not resistant. This review summarizes the oenological potential of minority or autochthonous grapevine varieties cultivated within the South American wine region, focusing on Argentina, Chile, and Bolivia. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.

Study of aromatic profile of different crosses of Monastrell white wines

BACKGROUND

Aromatic compounds are responsible for the final quality of wines. A semi-quantitative analysis was carried out during two consecutive seasons aiming to determine the volatile composition of 12 new white crosses obtained between Monastrell (M) and other varieties, such as Cabernet Sauvignon (C), Syrah (S) and Tempranillo (T) (MC10, MC180, MC9, MC69, MS30, MS33, MS82, MT103, MT19, MV11, MV67 and MV7), using a methodology based on gas chromatography-solid phase microextraction-mass spectrometry.

RESULTS

On the one hand, 30 aromatic compounds were identified belonging to different chemical groups (alcohols, acids, terpenes, norisoprenoids and esters). The results showed how some crosses presented significant differences with respect to their parental. For example, in 2016, Monastrell and Cabernet Sauvignon showed high concentration of alcohols, acids and some terpenes, whereas the corresponding crosses showed a predominance of aromas belonging to esters. In 2017, as a result of edaphoclimatic conditions, the white crosses had higher concentrations of esters and acids. In addition, Monastrell and Cabernet Sauvignon showed similar concentrations of alcohols compared to 2016. On the other hand, sensorial analyses confirmed these results, so that mint and peppermint aromas and a fresh quality were detected in MC69 wine, especially in 2016, and fruity and acid aromas were detected in MC180 wine, which gave it a wide ranging complexity and aromatic potential.

CONCLUSION

The present study reports the first investigation of the volatile composition and sensory characteristics of directed crosses white wines obtained from Monastrell and other varieties, such as Cabernet Sauvignon, Syrah, Tempranillo and Verdejo. The results obtained indicate that the use of some of these white crosses could be a good option for growing them in this Mediterranean area as a result of the contribution of a good quality in the wine aroma. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.

Volatile terpenoids, norisoprenoids and benzenoids as markers of fine scale vineyard segmentation for Corvina grapes and wines

In this study, the diversity existing at the very small scale of single vineyard parcels in volatile composition of grapes and wines from a single estate in the Valpolicella wine region has been studied. Corvina grapes from eight contiguous vineyards were used for the study and vinified with the same protocol. The compounds analyzed by GC-MS were representative of the terpenoid, norisoprenoid and benzenoid chemical families. Free and bound compounds analysis showed that differences between parcels were relatively small on grapes samples, whereas after fermentation larger differences between wine samples were highlighted. Multivariate statistical analysis of wine volatiles highlighted the existence of similarities between wine volatile profiles, which reflected to a good extent the geographical location of the corresponding vineyard parcels. The main drivers of this diversity were the monoterpene alcohols linalool, α-terpineol, linalool oxide; the benzenoids vanillin, ethyl vanillate and methyl vanillate; and the norisoprenoid β-damascenone. Wine from one vineyard parcel was not correctly classified, possibly due to the influence of the peculiar training system applied to this parcel. With aging the vineyard parcel geographical diversity was still reflected by the chemical diversity of wines, even if the separation was less fine. As many reactions occurred, some drivers of the diversity were changed after aging. They were benzenoids: ethyl vanillate, methyl vanillate and vanillin; the norisoprenoid 3-oxo-α-ionol; the terpenes linalool oxide, linalool, p-methane-1,8-diol, α-terpineol, and the precursors of nerol, geraniol, linalool.

What are the perceived target groups and occasions for wines and beers labelled with verbal and numerical descriptors of lower alcohol strength? An experimental study

OBJECTIVES

Alcohol consumption is the fifth leading cause of morbidity and mortality globally. The development and promotion of lower strength alcohol products may help reduce alcohol consumption and associated harms. This study assessed what a sample of UK weekly drinkers perceived to be the target groups and occasions for drinking wines and beers labelled with different verbal and numerical descriptors of lower alcohol strength.

DESIGN AND PARTICIPANTS

3390 adults (1697 wine and 1693 beer drinkers) were sampled from a nationally representative UK panel, and participated in a between-subjects experiment in which participants were randomised to 1 of 18 groups with one of three levels of verbal descriptor (Low vs. Super Low vs. No verbal descriptor) and six levels of %ABV (five levels varying for wine and beer, and no level given).

MEASURES

The study gauged participants' perceptions of the type of person that would find the randomised beverage appealing and the type of occasion on which the beverage is likely to be drunk at.

RESULTS

A principal component analysis showed that participants perceived pregnant women, sportspeople and those aged 6-13 years old were the target groups for products labelled with 0%ABV or the verbal descriptors Low or Super Low, whereas men, women, and those aged above 18 were perceived as the target groups for products labelled with higher %ABV. Participants also rated the products labelled with 0%ABV or the verbal descriptors Low or Super Low as targeting consumption on weekday lunches, whereas products labelled with higher %ABV were rated as targeting dinner/evening occasions, including parties, holidays and celebrations.

CONCLUSIONS

Lower strength products were seen as targeting non-traditional consumers (pregnant women) and occasions (weekday lunchtimes), suggesting these products may be perceived as extensions to regular strength alcoholic drinks rather than as substitutes for them.

Vive la Difference! The Effects of Natural and Conventional Wines on Blood Alcohol Concentrations: A Randomized, Triple-Blind, Controlled Study

Different alcoholic beverages can have different effects on blood alcohol concentration (BAC) and neurotoxicity, even when equalized for alcohol content by volume. Anecdotal evidence suggested that natural wine is metabolized differently from conventional wines. This triple-blind study compared the BAC of 55 healthy male subjects after consuming the equivalent of 2 units of alcohol of a natural or conventional wine over 3 min in two separate sessions, one week apart. BAC was measured using a professional breathalyzer every 20 min after consumption for 2 h. The BAC curves in response to the two wines diverged significantly at twenty minutes (interval T20) and forty minutes (interval T40), and also at their maximum concentrations (peaks), with the natural wine inducing a lower BAC than the conventional wine [T20 = 0.40 versus 0.46 (p < 0.0002); T40 = 0.49 versus 0.53 (p < 0.0015); peak = 0.52 versus 0.56 (p < 0.0002)]. These differences are likely related to the development of different amino acids and antioxidants in the two wines during their production. This may in turn affect the kinetics of alcohol absorption and metabolism. Other contributing factors could include pesticide residues, differences in dry extract content, and the use of indigenous or selected yeasts. The study shows that with the same quantity and conditions of intake, natural wine has lower pharmacokinetic and metabolic effects than conventional wine, which can be assumed due to the different agronomic and oenological practices with which they are produced. It can therefore be hypothesized that the consumption of natural wine may have a different impact on human health from that of conventional wine.

Screening for Novel Mercaptans in 26 Fruits and 20 Wines Using a Thiol-Selective Isolation Procedure in Combination with Three Detection Methods

A selection of 46 fruits and wines were screened for mercaptans using a thiol-selective isolation procedure. The identification was based on three methods: gas chromatography-olfactometry (GC-O), gas chromatography-sulfur chemiluminescence detection (GC-SCD), and two-dimensional gas chromatography coupled with time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC × GC-TOF/MS). A database constructed from analytical and sensory data for more than 300 sulfur compounds was used to confirm the identifications. Overall, 11 mercaptans were characterized in the fruits or wines for the first time. In addition, 1- p-menthene-9-thiol identified in kumquat is the first report in any food thus far. Thus, besides 1- p-menthene-8-thiol, p-menthane-8-thiole-3-one, and 3-mercapto-3,7-dimethyl-6-octenyl acetate, a fourth naturally occurring mercapto terpenoid occurs in fruits.

Characterization of Key Aroma Compounds in a Commercial Rum and an Australian Red Wine by Means of a New Sensomics-Based Expert System (SEBES)-An Approach To Use Artificial Intelligence in Determining Food Odor Codes

Although to date more than 10 000 volatile compounds have been characterized in foods, a literature survey has previously shown that only 226 aroma compounds, assigned as key food odorants (KFOs), have been identified to actively contribute to the overall aromas of about 200 foods, such as beverages, meat products, cheeses, or baked goods. Currently, a multistep analytical procedure involving the human olfactory system, assigned as Sensomics, represents a reference approach to identify and quantitate key odorants, as well as to define their sensory impact in the overall food aroma profile by so-called aroma recombinates. Despite its proven effectiveness, the Sensomics approach is time-consuming because repeated sensory analyses, for example, by GC/olfactometry, are essential to assess the odor quality and potency of each single constituent in a given food distillate. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to develop a fast, but Sensomics-based expert system (SEBES) that is able to reliably predict the key aroma compounds of a given food in a limited number of runs without using the human olfactory system. First, a successful method for the quantitation of nearly 100 (out of the 226 known KFOs) components was developed in combination with a software allowing the direct use of the identification and quantitation data for the calculation of odor activity values (OAV; ratio of concentration to odor threshold). Using a rum and a wine as examples, the quantitative results obtained by the new SEBES method were compared to data obtained by applying an aroma extract dilution analysis and stable isotope dilution assays required in the classical Sensomics approach. A good agreement of the results was found with differences below 20% for most of the compounds considered. By implementing the GC × GC data analysis software with the in-house odor threshold database, odor activity values (ratio of concentration to odor threshold) were directly displayed in the software pane. The OAVs calculated by the software were in very good agreement with data manually calculated on the basis of the data obtained by SIDA. Thus, it was successfully shown that it is possible to characterize key food odorants with one single analytical platform and without using the human olfactory system, that is, by "artificial intelligence smelling".

Chemical Characteristics of Sangiovese Wines from California and Italy of 2016 Vintage

Sangiovese is the most widespread Italian red cultivar and constitutes the basis of internationally known wines such as Chianti and Brunello di Montalcino. Outside of Europe, Argentina is the largest producer, followed by the United States. This study sought to define and compare 2016 vintage Sangiovese wine composition from various production regions in California and Italy. Forty-six commercial Sangiovese wines from California and Italy were analyzed for volatile profile, color, phenolic, and elemental content. This study demonstrates that it is possible to determine regional differences among wines based on these chemical profiles. However, some Californian and Italian wine had similar chemical compositions. In order to compare Californian and Italian wines, Californian wine reference models were developed using the chemical parameters from Sangiovese wines, performing a Soft Independent Modeling of Class Analogy (SIMCA). To our knowledge, this is the first time that an extensive regionality study has been attempted for Sangiovese wines.

Wine and grape marc spirits metabolomics

INTRODUCTION

Mass spectrometry (MS)-based and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopic analyses play a key role in the field of metabolomics due to their important advantages. The use of metabolomics in wine and grape marc spirits allows a more holistic perspective in monitoring and gaining information on the making processes and thus it can assist on the improvement of their quality.

OBJECTIVES

This review surveys the latest metabolomics approaches for wine and grape marc spirits with a focus on the description of MS-based and NMR spectroscopic analytical techniques.

METHODS

We reviewed the literature to identify metabolomic studies of wine and grape marc spirits that were published until the end of 2017, with the key term combinations of 'metabolomics', 'wine' and 'grape marc spirits'. Through the reference lists from these studies, additional articles were identified.

RESULTS

The results of this review showed that the application of different metabolomics approaches has significantly increased the knowledge of wine metabolome and grape marc spirits; however there is not yet a single analytical platform that can completely separate, detect and identify all metabolites in one analysis.

CONCLUSIONS

The authentication and quality control of wines and grape marc spirits has to be taken with caution, since the product's chemical composition could be affected by many factors. Despite intrinsic limitations, NMR spectroscopy and MS based strategies remain the key analytical methods in metabolomics studies. Authenticity, traceability and health issues related to their consumption are the major research initiatives in wine and grape marc spirits metabolomics analysis.

Rapid detection of three quality parameters and classification of wine based on Vis-NIR spectroscopy with wavelength selection by ACO and CARS algorithms

The feasibility of rapid detection of three quality parameters and classification of wines based on visible and near infrared spectroscopy (Vis-NIRs) was investigated. A modified ant colony optimization (ACO) algorithm for wavelength selection in Vis-NIR spectral analysis was proposed to improve the prediction performance of partial least squares regression (PLSR) model. The result proved that feature wavelengths/variables can be selected by the proposed method for building a high performance PLSR model. The root mean square error of total acid, total sugar and alcohol obtained by ACO-PLS were 0.00122 mol/l, 0.0893 g/l and 0.206 (v/v), respectively. Their correlation coefficients obtained by ACO-PLS reach to 0.973, 0.994 and 0.928, respectively. Compared with full-spectral PLS and PLS based on competitive adaptive reweighted sampling (CARS-PLS) method, the application of ACO wavelength selection provided a notably improved regression model. The prediction results were significantly better than the full-spectral PLS model and slightly better than the CARS-PLS method. Meanwhile, a classification study was also constructed based on the ACO-Principal component analysis (ACO-PCA) model showed that Vis-NIR spectra could be used to classify wines according to the geographical origins. Therefore, it can be concluded that the Vis-NIR spectroscopy technique based on ACO wavelength selection has high potential to differentiate the wine origins and predict the quality parameters in a nondestructive way.

An efficient swarm intelligence approach to feature selection based on invasive weed optimization: Application to multivariate calibration and classification using spectroscopic data

Variable selection plays a key role in classification and multivariate calibration. Variable selection methods are aimed at choosing a set of variables, from a large pool of available predictors, relevant to the analyte concentrations estimation, or to achieve better classification results. Many variable selection techniques have now been introduced among which, those which are based on the methodologies of swarm intelligence optimization have been more respected during a few last decades since they are mainly inspired by nature. In this work, a simple and new variable selection algorithm is proposed according to the invasive weed optimization (IWO) concept. IWO is considered a bio-inspired metaheuristic mimicking the weeds ecological behavior in colonizing as well as finding an appropriate place for growth and reproduction; it has been shown to be very adaptive and powerful to environmental changes. In this paper, the first application of IWO, as a very simple and powerful method, to variable selection is reported using different experimental datasets including FTIR and NIR data, so as to undertake classification and multivariate calibration tasks. Accordingly, invasive weed optimization - linear discrimination analysis (IWO-LDA) and invasive weed optimization- partial least squares (IWO-PLS) are introduced for multivariate classification and calibration, respectively.

Climatic potential for summer and winter wine production

BACKGROUND

The geoviticultural multicriteria climatic classification (MCC) system provides an efficient guide for assessing the influence of climate on wine varieties. Paraná is one of the three states in southern Brazil that has great potential for the expansion of wine production, mainly due to the conditions that favour two harvests a year. The objective was to apply the geoviticultural MCC system in two production seasons. We used maximum, mean and minimum air temperature and precipitation for 1990-2015 for the state of Paraná. Air temperature and Precipitation were used to calculate the evapotranspiration and water balance. We applied the MCC system to identify potential areas for grapevine production for harvests in both summer and winter and then determined the climatic zones for each geoviticultural climate.

RESULTS

Paraná has viticultural climates with conditions favourable for grapevine cultivation for the production of fine wines from summer and winter harvests. The conditions for the winter harvest provided wines with good coloration and high aromatic potential relative to the summer harvest.

CONCLUSION

Chardonnay, Merlot, Pinot Blanc and Müller-Thurgau were suitable for regions with lower air temperatures and water deficits. Pinot Blanc and Müller-Thurgau were typical for the southern region of Paraná. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.

Wine consumers' subjective responses to wine mouthfeel and understanding of wine body

Wine mouthfeel is considered important for wine quality by experts, while consumers understanding of mouthfeel and the role of wine body in their wine choice is unknown. One experiment determined the influence of intrinsic wine mouthfeel on consumers' wine liking and emotions, and the other, how consumers understand the term wine body. The first experiment used a 2 astringency level×2 body level experimental design. The samples were base wine with; nothing added (control), added xanthan gum (for increased body), added grape seed extract (GSE, for increased astringency), and with both added xanthan gum and GSE. The consumer taste trial (n=112) indicated that wine with increased body did not influence wine liking and emotions; while increased astringency decreased liking and elicited more intense negative emotions. The second experiment examined consumers' knowledge of wine body through an online survey (n=136). Consumers described wine body most frequently using words such as flavour, fullness, and strength. Wine body was therefore understood by consumers predominantly as a holistic multi-sensory perception of flavour. Wine flavour was indicated by consumers to be the most important factor driving purchase decisions followed by balance of flavours and wine body. It is crucial that wine professionals carefully communicate wine characteristics to consumers to prevent possible misunderstandings such as the meaning of wine body and as a result better meet consumer expectations. In future, the term body may benefit from a clearer definition for academic research as well as industry.

Harvest date effects on aroma compounds in aged Riesling icewines

BACKGROUND

Riesling icewine is an important product of the Ontario wine industry. The objective of this study was to characterize concentrations in aroma compounds in aged icewines associated with three harvest dates (H1, H2, H3) using stir bar sorptive extraction-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and to make inferences, where appropriate, with respect to their roles in potential wine quality.

RESULTS

Delaying harvest decreased concentrations of many odorants, but increased many critical odor-active compounds; e.g. 1-octen-3-ol, ethyl benzoate, ethyl octanoate, cis-rose oxide, and β-ionone. H1 wines had higher concentrations of four aldehydes, three alcohols, nine esters, seven terpenes, γ-nonalactone, p-vinylguaiacol, β-damascenone, and 2-furanmethanol. However, many of these compounds, with some exceptions, have relatively high odor thresholds. Fourteen compounds were above their odor thresholds, including decanal, 1-octen-3-ol, phenylethyl alcohol, four ethyl esters, cis-rose oxide, linalool, γ-nonalactone, p-vinylguaiacol, ethyl cinnamate, β-damascenone, and 1,1,6-trimethyl-1,2-dihydronaphthalene. H3 wines contained higher concentrations of highly odor-active compounds, e.g. 1-octen-3-ol, cis-rose oxide, and β-ionone. Only phenylethyl alcohol [H3 odor activity value (OAV) = 0.33 (honey, spice, rose)] and linalool [H3 OAV = 0.92 (floral, lavender)] had H3 OAVs < 1.

CONCLUSIONS

Early harvest increased many esters and aliphatic compounds, but delayed harvest appeared to substantially increase concentrations of several highly odor-active compounds. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry.

Drivers of high-involvement consumers' intention to buy PDO wines: Valpolicella PDO case study

BACKGROUND

This study investigates whether different sensory profiles of wines belonging to the same Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) are perceived as different products by consumers. It identifies the drivers of consumers' intention to buy preferred wines. Descriptive sensory analysis, consumer tests and consumer interviews were conducted to reach research aims. To perform the consumer tests and interviews, 443 consumers participated in the survey. The tasted wines comprised five samples representative of Valpolicella PDO wine. Analysis of variance tests, principal component analysis and linear and logit regressions were employed to verify the research hypotheses.

RESULTS

The results demonstrated: (1) different sensory profiles exist within the Valpolicella PDO wine; (2) these sensory profiles result in consumers having the perception of diversified products; (3) the perception of differences was less marked for consumers than for trained assessors due to the different weight attributed to visual, aroma and the taste/mouthfeel hedonic dimensions; and (4) consumers' liking, as well as general perceptions, attitudes, preferences, wine knowledge and experience, contribute to consumers' intentions to buy more than the socio-demographic characteristics of consumers.

CONCLUSION

The analysis of the drivers of consumers' intention to buy certain PDO wines provides new marketing insights into the roles of intrinsic quality, preferences and consumers' subjective characteristics in market segmentation. © 2015 Society of Chemical Industry.

Proton Nuclear Magnetic Resonance-Spectroscopic Discrimination of Wines Reflects Genetic Homology of Several Different Grape (V. vinifera L.) Cultivars

Background and Aims

Proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy coupled multivariate analysis (¹H NMR-PCA/PLS-DA) is an important tool for the discrimination of wine products. Although ¹H NMR has been shown to discriminate wines of different cultivars, a grape genetic component of the discrimination has been inferred only from discrimination of cultivars of undefined genetic homology and in the presence of many confounding environmental factors. We aimed to confirm the influence of grape genotypes in the absence of those factors.

Methods and Results

We applied ¹H NMR-PCA/PLS-DA and hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) to wines from five, variously genetically-related grapevine (V. vinifera) cultivars; all grown similarly on the same site and vinified similarly. We also compared the semi-quantitative profiles of the discriminant metabolites of each cultivar with previously reported chemical analyses. The cultivars were clearly distinguishable and there was a general correlation between their grouping and their genetic homology as revealed by recent genomic studies. Between cultivars, the relative amounts of several of the cultivar-related discriminant metabolites conformed closely with reported chemical analyses.

Conclusions

Differences in grape-derived metabolites associated with genetic differences alone are a major source of ¹H NMR-based discrimination of wines and ¹H NMR has the capacity to discriminate between very closely related cultivars.

Significance of the Study

The study confirms that genetic variation among grape cultivars alone can account for the discrimination of wine by ¹H NMR-PCA/PLS and indicates that ¹H NMR spectra of wine of single grape cultivars may in future be used in tandem with hierarchical cluster analysis to elucidate genetic lineages and metabolomic relations of grapevine cultivars. In the absence of genetic information, for example, where predecessor varieties are no longer extant, this may be a particularly useful approach.

Site-specific (13) С/(12) С isotope abundance ratios in dicarboxylic oxyacids as characteristics of their origin

RATIONALE

Recommendations of relevant international organizations controlling the quality of grape wines and beverages specify that only tartaric acids of grape origin can be introduced to achieve the required parameters. The development of methods for determining the origin of tartaric acid in grape wine is of great technological significance.

METHODS

Organic dicarboxylic oxyacids were extracted from wines as barium salts. Carbon dioxide, which included all the carbon atoms of the acids, was used to determine the carbon isotope ratios by Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry. The alkyl part of the oxyacids was burned at 560°C in the presence of air; BaCO3 containing the carboxyl carbon was left. This carbonate was used to measure the carbon isotope ratios in the carboxyl part of the acid. The carbon isotope ratios of the alkyl part of tartaric acid were found by isotope mass balance.

RESULTS

The carbon isotope composition of carboxyl groups (δ(13) С values) in tartaric acid of grape (biogenic origin) had a higher (13) С content than the carbon in the alkyl part of the molecule. Tartaric acid produced by chemical synthesis (abiogenic origin) was noted to have a different (13) С/(12) С distribution: the carboxyl group of tartaric acid produced by chemical synthesis contained a smaller than or equal amount of (13) С to the alkyl part.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first determination of the site-specific distribution of the (13) С/(12) С isotopes in tartaric acids as evidence of their biogenic and abiogenic origins. The presented method for determining the origin of tartaric acid can be used for efficient control of the quality of grape wines and beverages.

Genetic Analysis of East Asian Grape Cultivars Suggests Hybridization with Wild Vitis

Koshu is a grape cultivar native to Japan and is one of the country’s most important cultivars for wine making. Koshu and other oriental grape cultivars are widely believed to belong to the European domesticated grape species Vitis vinifera. To verify the domesticated origin of Koshu and four other cultivars widely grown in China and Japan, we genotyped 48 ancestry informative single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and estimated wild and domesticated ancestry proportions. Our principal components analysis (PCA) based ancestry estimation revealed that Koshu is 70% V. vinifera, and that the remaining 30% of its ancestry is most likely derived from wild East Asian Vitis species. Partial sequencing of chloroplast DNA suggests that Koshu’s maternal line is derived from the Chinese wild species V. davidii or a closely related species. Our results suggest that many traditional East Asian grape cultivars such as Koshu were generated from hybridization events with wild grape species.

Mediterranean Diet and Cardiovascular Disease: A Critical Evaluation of A Priori Dietary Indexes

The aim of this paper is to analyze the a priori dietary indexes used in the studies that have evaluated the role of the Mediterranean Diet in influencing the risk of developing cardiovascular disease. All the studies show that this dietary pattern protects against cardiovascular disease, but studies show quite different effects on specific conditions such as coronary heart disease or cerebrovascular disease. A priori dietary indexes used to measure dietary exposure imply quantitative and/or qualitative divergences from the traditional Mediterranean Diet of the early 1960s, and, therefore, it is very difficult to compare the results of different studies. Based on real cultural heritage and traditions, we believe that the a priori indexes used to evaluate adherence to the Mediterranean Diet should consider classifying whole grains and refined grains, olive oil and monounsaturated fats, and wine and alcohol differently.

Characterization of Chinese rice wine taste attributes using liquid chromatographic analysis, sensory evaluation, and an electronic tongue

To evaluate the taste characteristics of Chinese rice wine, wine samples sourced from different vintage years were analyzed using liquid chromatographic analysis, sensory evaluation, and an electronic tongue. Six organic acids and seventeen amino acids were measured using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Five monosaccharides were measured using anion-exchange chromatography. The global taste attributes were analyzed using an electronic tongue (E-tongue). The correlations between the 28 taste-active compounds and the sensory attributes, and the correlations between the E-tongue response and the sensory attributes were established via partial least square discriminant analysis (PLSDA). E-tongue response data combined with linear discriminant analysis (LDA) were used to discriminate the Chinese rice wine samples sourced from different vintage years. Sensory evaluation indicated significant differences in the Chinese rice wine samples sourced from 2003, 2005, 2008, and 2010 vintage years in the sensory attributes of harmony and mellow. The PLSDA model for the taste-active compounds and the sensory attributes showed that proline, fucose, arabinose, lactic acid, glutamic acid, arginine, isoleucine, valine, threonine, and lysine had an influence on the taste characteristic of Chinese rice wine. The Chinese rice wine samples were all correctly classified using the E-tongue and LDA. The electronic tongue was an effective tool for rapid discrimination of Chinese rice wine.

Complex Interplay of Hormonal Signals during Grape Berry Ripening

Grape and wine production and quality is extremely dependent on the fruit ripening process. Sensory and nutritional characteristics are important aspects for consumers and their development during fruit ripening involves complex hormonal control. In this review, we explored data already published on grape ripening and compared it with the hormonal regulation of ripening of other climacteric and non-climacteric fruits. The roles of abscisic acid, ethylene, and brassinosteroids as promoters of ripening are discussed, as well as the role of auxins, cytokinins, gibberellins, jasmonates, and polyamines as inhibitors of ripening. In particular, the recently described role of polyamine catabolism in grape ripening is discussed, together with its putative interaction with other hormones. Furthermore, other recent examples of cross-talk among the different hormones are presented, revealing a complex interplay of signals during grape development and ripening.

Correlating wine quality indicators to chemical and sensory measurements

Twenty-seven commercial Californian Cabernet Sauvignon wines of different quality categories were analyzed with sensory and chemical methods. Correlations between five quality proxies-points awarded during a wine competition, wine expert scores, retail price, vintage, and wine region-were correlated to sensory attributes, volatile compounds, and elemental composition. Wine quality is a multi-faceted construct, incorporating many different layers. Depending on the quality proxy studied, significant correlations between quality and attributes, volatiles and elements were found, some of them previously reported in the literature.

Classification of Sparkling Wine Style and Quality by MIR Spectroscopy

In this study, the suitability of attenuated total reflection (ATR) mid-infrared (MIR) spectroscopy, combined with principal component analysis (PCA) and partial least squares (PLS) regression, was evaluated as a rapid analytical technique for the classification of sparkling wine style and quality. Australian sparkling wines (n = 139) comprising a range of styles (i.e., white, rosé, red, Prosecco and Moscato) were analyzed by ATR-MIR spectroscopy combined with multivariate data analysis. The MIR spectra of 50 sparkling white wines, produced according to four different production methods (i.e., Carbonation, Charmat, Transfer and Methodé Traditionelle) were also evaluated against: (i) quality ratings determined by an expert panel; and (ii) sensory attributes rated by a trained sensory panel. Wine pH, titratable acidity (TA), residual sugar (RS), alcohol and total phenolic content were also determined. The sparkling wine styles were separated on the PCA score plot based on their MIR spectral data; while the sparkling white wines showed separation based on production method, which strongly influenced the style and sensory properties of wine (i.e., the intensity of fruit versus yeast-derived characters). PLS calibrations of 0.73, 0.77, 0.82 and 0.86 were obtained for sweetness, tropical fruit, confectionary and toasty characters (on the palate), respectively.

Relationship between medium-chain fatty acid contents and organoleptic properties of Japanese sake

Medium-chain fatty acids (MCFAs) and ethyl esters are considered to contribute to some organoleptic properties, such as fatty odor and bitterness in Japanese sake. However, the relationships between these compounds and the organoleptic properties of sake remain unclear. Here, we quantified MCFAs and ethyl hexanoate in ginjo sake using gas chromatography with a flame ionization detector (GC-FID). The hexanoic acid concentration strongly correlated with fatty odor (p < 0.0001). The octanoic acid/hexanoic acid ratio correlated with butanoic acid concentration, which is likely correlated with inharmonious bitter taste. Multiple comparison analysis revealed that the ethyl hexanoate level was negatively correlated with bitterness. We then identified other chemical compounds correlating with fatty odor and bitterness using comprehensive two-dimensional GC coupled with time-of-flight mass spectrometry. By performing correlation analysis between certain compounds and sensory values following statistical selection for chemical compounds, we identified several candidate compounds correlating with fatty odor and bitterness in sake.

Validated modeling for German white wine varietal authentication based on headspace solid-phase microextraction online coupled with gas chromatography mass spectrometry fingerprinting

An untargeted analytical approach combined with chemometrics using the volatiles of German white wine was investigated regarding the usefulness for verifying botanical origin. A total of 198 wine samples of Riesling, Müller-Thurgau, Silvaner, Pinot Gris, and Pinot Blanc were examined applying headspace solid-phase microextraction online coupled with gas chromatography mass spectrometry. The resultant three-dimensional raw data were processed by available metabolomics software. After data treatment, a partial least-squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) model was validated. External samples were correctly classified for 97% Silvaner, 93% Riesling, 91% Pinot Gris/Blanc, and 80% Müller-Thurgau. This model was related to monoterpenoids, C13-norisoprenoids, and esters. Further, 100% prediction for a two-class model of Riesling versus Pinot Gris/Blanc was confirmed by 74 additional samples measured independently. Hence, the strategy applied was, in particular, reliable and relevant for white wine varietal classification. In addition, the superior classification performance of the Riesling class was revealed.

Estimation of wine characteristics using a modified Heliothermal Index in Baden-Württemberg, SW Germany

The Heliothermal Index (HI) is one of the most common methods used to identify suitable areas for viticulture, using sums of air temperatures and latitude of locations. For this study, the HI and a modified version of it was applied to estimate annual wine characteristics in the federal state of Baden-Württemberg in southwest Germany. For this process, measurement data of 11 climate stations from 1960 to 2010 were used. In order to develop a method, 40 years of observation were selected and split into 30 years for developing an estimation method and 10 years for validation. The HI was modified by varying the time periods with which the index was calculated. Time periods with little effect on wine characteristics were identified and excluded to improve the estimation. The must density could be estimated with a bias of about 1 °Oe absolute value, which equals 0.21 °Brix, a mean average error (MAE) of about 4 °Oe / 0.82 °Brix and a root mean square error (RMSE) of about 5 °Oe / 1.03 ° Brix. The titratable acidity could be estimated with a bias of about 0.1 g/L absolute value, a MAE of about 0.7 g/L and a RMSE of about 0.9 g/L.

A daily glass of red wine associated with lifestyle changes independently improves blood lipids in patients with carotid arteriosclerosis: results from a randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Physical exercise and a Mediterranean diet improve serum lipid profile. The present work studied whether red wine has an effect on top of a lipid-lowering lifestyle in patients with carotid atherosclerosis.

METHODS

A prospective randomised unblinded trial was performed from 2009 to 2011 in 108 patients with carotid atherosclerosis, 65% of whom were already on statin therapy with a low mean LDL of 104.9 mg/dl. Half of them were advised to follow a modified Mediterranean diet and to perform moderate physical exercise during 30 min/day (lifestyle changes) for 20 weeks. Within these two groups half of the patients were randomised either to avoid any alcohol or to drink 100 ml of red wine (women) or 200 ml of red wine (men) daily.

RESULTS

LDL was significantly lowered by 7% in the lifestyle-changes group compared to the no-lifestyle-changes group (p = 0.0296) after 20 weeks. Lifestyle changes lowered the LDL/HDL ratio after 20 weeks by 8% (p = 0.0242) and red wine independently by 13% (p = 0.0049). The effect on LDL/HDL ratio after 20 weeks was, however, more pronounced in the non-LC group. Total cholesterol (-6%; p = 0.0238) and triglycerides (-13%; p = 0.0361) were lowered significantly by lifestyle changes after 20 weeks compared to the no-lifestyle-changes group. Lipoprotein (a) was not significantly affected by any intervention. The given results are per ITT analysis.

CONCLUSIONS

Lifestyle changes including a modified Mediterranean diet and physical exercise as well as a glass of red wine daily improve independently the LDL/HDL ratio in patients with carotid arteriosclerosis even though the vast majority of them was already on statin therapy.

Mediterranean climate patterns and wine quality in North and Central Italy

Results show that the year-to-year quality variation of wines produced in North and Central Italy depends on the large-scale climate variability, and that the wine quality improvement in the last four decades is partially due to an increase of temperature and to a decrease of precipitation in West and Central Mediterranean Europe (WME; CME). In addition, wine quality is positively correlated with air temperature throughout the entire active period of the grapevine, weakly negatively correlated with precipitation in spring, and well negatively correlated in summer and fall. The month-to-month composites of the NAO anomaly show that, in years of good quality wine, this anomaly is negative in late spring, oscillates around zero in summer, and is positive in early fall; while, in years of bad quality wine, it is positive in late spring and summer, and negative in early fall, i.e. its polarity has an opposite sign in spring and fall in good versus bad years. The composite seasonal maps show that good wines are produced when the spring jet stream over the Atlantic diverts most of the weather perturbations towards North Europe, still providing a sufficient amount of rainwater to CME; when summer warming induced by southerly winds is balanced by the cooling induced by westerly winds; and when a positive geopotential anomaly over WME shelters CME from fall Atlantic storms. Bad quality wines are produced when the jet stream favors the intrusion of the Atlantic weather perturbations into the Mediterranean. Results suggest that atmospheric pattern persistencies can be used as precursors for wine quality forecast.

High-precision 87Sr/86Sr analyses in wines and their use as a geological fingerprint for tracing geographic provenance

The radiogenic isotopic compositions of inorganic heavy elements such as Sr, Nd, and Pb of the food chain may constitute a reliable geographic fingerprint, their isotopic ratios being inherited by the geological substratum of the territory of production. The Sr isotope composition of geomaterials (i.e., rocks and soils) is largely variable, and it depends upon the age of the rocks and their nature (e.g., genesis, composition). In this study we developed a high-precision analytical procedure for determining Sr isotopes in wines at comparable uncertainty levels of geological data. With the aim of verifying the possibility of using Sr isotope in wine as a reliable tracer for geographic provenance, we performed Sr isotope analyses of 45 bottled wines from four different geographical localities of the Italian peninsula. Their Sr isotope composition has been compared with that of rocks from the substrata (i.e., rocks) of their vineyards. In addition wines from the same winemaker but different vintage years have been analyzed to verify the constancy with time of the (87)Sr/(86)Sr. Sr isotope compositions have been determined by solid source thermal ionization mass spectrometry following purification of Sr in a clean laboratory. (87)Sr/(86)Sr of the analyzed wines is correlated with the isotopic values of the geological substratum of the vineyards, showing little or no variation within the same vineyard and among different vintages. Large (87)Sr/(86)Sr variation is observed among wines from the different geographical areas, reinforcing the link with the geological substratum of the production territory. This makes Sr isotopes a robust geochemical tool for tracing the geographic authenticity and provenance of wine.

Wine composition plays an important role in the control of carcinogenic precursor formation by Lactobacillus hilgardii X₁B

BACKGROUND

Lactobacillus hilgardii, a wine lactic acid bacterium, is able to use arginine, through the arginine deiminase pathway with the formation of citrulline, a precursor of the carcinogen ethyl carbamate. The influence of different Argentine wine varieties (Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon and Malbec), on bacterial growth and arginine metabolism was examined. Furthermore, the effect of different components normally present in wines on the enzyme activities of the arginine deiminase system was determined.

RESULTS

Malbec wine under all conditions assayed (33, 50 and 100% supplemented wine:basal media) showed higher arginine consumption and citrulline production than the other wines, as well as the highest bacterial growth and survival of Lactobacillus hilgardii X₁B. Glucose and L-malic inhibited both arginine deiminase enzymes while fructose and citric acid only inhibited arginine deiminase. The red wines assayed in this study had different composition, and this is an explanation for the different behavior of the bacterium.

CONCLUSION

The highest citrulline production in Malbec wine could be correlated with its lower concentrations of glucose, fructose, citric and phenolic acid than the other wines. Therefore, a wine with lower concentration of these sugars and acids could be dangerous due to the formation of ethyl carbamate precursors.

Electronic nose based on independent component analysis combined with partial least squares and artificial neural networks for wine prediction

The aim of this work is to propose an alternative way for wine classification and prediction based on an electronic nose (e-nose) combined with Independent Component Analysis (ICA) as a dimensionality reduction technique, Partial Least Squares (PLS) to predict sensorial descriptors and Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) for classification purpose. A total of 26 wines from different regions, varieties and elaboration processes have been analyzed with an e-nose and tasted by a sensory panel. Successful results have been obtained in most cases for prediction and classification.

Classification of smoke tainted wines using mid-infrared spectroscopy and chemometrics

In this study, the suitability of mid-infrared (MIR) spectroscopy, combined with principal component analysis (PCA) and linear discriminant analysis (LDA), was evaluated as a rapid analytical technique to identify smoke tainted wines. Control (i.e., unsmoked) and smoke-affected wines (260 in total) from experimental and commercial sources were analyzed by MIR spectroscopy and chemometrics. The concentrations of guaiacol and 4-methylguaiacol were also determined using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), as markers of smoke taint. LDA models correctly classified 61% of control wines and 70% of smoke-affected wines. Classification rates were found to be influenced by the extent of smoke taint (based on GC-MS and informal sensory assessment), as well as qualitative differences in wine composition due to grape variety and oak maturation. Overall, the potential application of MIR spectroscopy combined with chemometrics as a rapid analytical technique for screening smoke-affected wines was demonstrated.

Discrimination between Shiraz wines from different Australian regions: the role of spectroscopy and chemometrics

This study reports the use of UV-visible (UV-vis), near-infrared (NIR), and midinfrared (MIR) spectroscopy combined with chemometrics to discriminate among Shiraz wines produced in five Australian regions. In total, 98 commercial Shiraz samples (vintage 2006) were analyzed using UV-vis, NIR, and MIR wavelength regions. Spectral data were interpreted using principal component analysis (PCA), linear discriminant analysis (LDA), and soft independent model of class analogy (SIMCA) to classify the wine samples according to region. The results indicated that wine samples from Western Australia and Coonawarra can be separated from the other wines based on their MIR spectra. Classification results based on MIR spectra also indicated that LDA achieved 73% overall correct classification, while SIMCA 95.3%. This study demonstrated that IR spectroscopy combined with chemometric methods can be a useful tool for wine region discrimination.

Cyclic polyalcohols: fingerprints to identify the botanical origin of natural woods used in wine aging

Cyclic polyalcohol composition of 80 natural wood samples from different botanical species, with the majority of them used in the oenology industry for aging purposes, has been studied by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) after its conversion into their trimethylsilyloxime derivatives. Each botanical species showed a different and specific cyclic polyalcohol profile. Oak wood samples were characterized by the richness in deoxyinositols, especially proto-quercitol. Meanwhile, other botanical species showed a very low content of cyclic polyalcohols. The qualitative and quantitative study of cyclic polyalcohols was a useful tool to characterize and differentiate woods of different botanical origin to guarantee the authenticity of chips used in the wine-aging process. Monosaccharide composition was also analyzed, showing some quantitative differences among species, but cyclic polyalcohols were the compounds that revealed the main differentiation power.

Relationship between red wine grades and phenolics. 1. Tannin and total phenolics concentrations

Measuring chemical composition is a common approach to support decisions about allocating foods and beverages to grades related to market value. Red wine is a particularly complex beverage, and multiple compositional attributes are needed to account for its sensory properties, including measurement of key phenolic components such as anthocyanins, total phenolics, and tannin, which are related to color and astringency. Color has been shown to relate positively to red wine grade; however, little research has been presented that explores the relationship between astringency-related components such as total phenolic or tannin concentration and wine grade. The aim of this research has been to investigate the relationship between the wine grade allocations of commercial wineries and total phenolic and tannin concentrations, respectively, in Australian Shiraz and Cabernet Sauvignon wines. Total phenolic and tannin concentrations were determined using the methyl cellulose precipitable (MCP) tannin assay and then compared to wine grade allocations made by winemaker panels during the companies' postvintage allocation process. Data were collected from wines produced by one Australian wine company over the 2005, 2006, and 2007 vintages and by a further two companies in 2007 (total wines = 1643). Statistical analysis revealed a positive trend toward higher wine grade allocation and wines that had higher concentrations of both total phenolics and tannin, respectively. This research demonstrates that for these companies, in general, Cabernet Sauvignon and Shiraz wines allocated to higher market value grades have higher total phenolics and higher tannin concentrations and suggests that these compositional parameters should be considered in the development of future multiparameter decision support systems for relevant commercial red wine grading processes. In addition, both tannin and total phenolics would ideally be included because although, in general, a positive relationship exists between the two parameters, this relationship does not hold for all wine styles.

Classification of wines from five Spanish origin denominations by aromatic compound analysis

Wine is a complex matrix in which aroma compounds play an important role in the characterization of the flavor pattern of a given wine. Twelve volatile compounds were determined in 244 samples of Spanish red wines from different denominations of origin: Rioja, Navarra, Valdepeñas, La Mancha, and Cariñena. The samples were analyzed by GC using headspace solid-phase microextraction. The concentration (mg/mL) intervals obtained were 3-methyl-butyl acetate (3.9 to 116), 3-methyl-1-butanol (93 to 724), ethyl hexanoate (0.8 to 39), 1-hexanol (0.3 to 6.7), ethyl octanoate (1.4 to 41), diethyl succinate (0.2 to 13), 2-phenyl ethyl acetate (0 to 5.3), hexanoic acid (0 to 8.3), geraniol (0 to 3.0), 2-phenylethanol (1.5 to 56), octanoic acid (0 to 20), and decanoic acid (0 to 3.3). Wines were classified by multivariate statistical methods: principal component analysis, and lineal discriminant analysis. A correct differentiation among wines according to their origin was obtained by lineal discriminant analysis.

An extensive study of the genetic diversity within seven French wine grape variety collections

The process of vegetative propagation used to multiply grapevine varieties produces, in most cases, clones genetically identical to the parental plant. Nevertheless, spontaneous somatic mutations can occur in the regenerative cells that give rise to the clones, leading to consider varieties as populations of clones that conform to a panel of phenotypic traits. Using two sets of nuclear microsatellite markers, the present work aimed at evaluating and comparing the intravarietal genetic diversity within seven wine grape varieties: Cabernet franc, Cabernet Sauvignon, Chenin blanc, Grolleau, Pinot noir, Riesling, Savagnin, comprising a total number of 344 accessions of certified clones and introductions preserved in French repositories. Ten accessions resulted in being either self-progeny, possible offspring of the expected variety or misclassified varieties. Out of the 334 remaining accessions, 83 displayed genotypes different from the varietal reference, i.e., the microsatellite profile shared by the larger number of accessions. They showed a similarity value ranging from 0.923 to 0.992, and thus were considered as polymorphic monozygotic clones. The fraction of polymorphic clones ranged from 2 to 75% depending on the variety and the set of markers, the widest clonal diversity being observed within the Savagnin. Among the 83 polymorphic clones, 29 had unique genotype making them distinguishable; others were classified in 21 groups sharing the same genotype. All microsatellite markers were not equally efficient to show diversity within clone collections and a standard set of five microsatellite markers (VMC3a9, VMC5g7, VVS2, VVMD30, and VVMD 32) relevant to reveal clonal polymorphism is proposed.

A parentage study of closely related Ukrainian wine grape varieties using microsatellite markers

Four bred grapevine varieties released for commercial cultivation in Ukraine, namely 'Antey Magarachskii', 'Rubinovyi Magaracha', 'Granatovyi Magaracha' and 'Rubin Golodrigi', and their putative parental forms were genotyped using six microsatellite loci. Genotypes were compared with breeding records to verify genetic relationships among varieties. Results of the analysis confirmed four of six parent-offspring relationships. Results of the analysis allow to assume that genotype 'Seyve Villard 20347' is the direct parent of 'Antey Magarachskii' instead of its grandparent. The first-studied accession believed to be that of Granatovyi Magaracha was identified as impurity. In order to verify the parentage of Granatovyi Magaracha, rest accessions of that variety and its putative parent Antey Magarachskii were additionally genotyped at 13 nuclear loci and at three chloroplast loci. The parent-offspring relationship was confirmed, as all Granatovyi Magaracha accessions had a common allele with the parent variety Antey Magarachskii at each locus and the same chlorotype A. Different Granatovyi Magaracha accessions could have been obtained via vegetative propagation of two seedlings which arose from one crossing.

Comparison of gas chromatography-coupled time-of-flight mass spectrometry and 1H nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy metabolite identification in white wines from a sensory study investigating wine body

Metabolite profiles of white wines, including Chardonnay, Pinot gris, Riesling, Sauvignon blanc, and Viognier varieties, were determined using both gas chromatography-coupled time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC-TOF-MS) and proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy ((1)H NMR). A total of 108 metabolites were identified by GC-TOF-MS, and 51 metabolites were identified by (1)H NMR; the majority of metabolites identified include the most abundant compounds found in wine (ethanol, glycerol, sugars, organic acids, and amino acids). Compositional differences in these wines correlating to the wine sensory property "body", or viscous mouthfeel, as scored by a trained panel were identified using partial least-squares (PLS) regression. Independently calculated GC-TOF-MS and NMR-based PLS models demonstrate potential for predictive models to replace expensive, time-consuming sensory panels. At the modeling stage, correlations between the measured and predicted values have coefficients of determination of 0.83 and 0.75 for GC-TOF-MS and (1)H NMR, respectively. Additionally, the MS- and NMR-based models present new insights into the chemical basis for wine mouthfeel properties.

Geographical origin of Sauvignon Blanc wines predicted by mass spectrometry and metal oxide based electronic nose

Analysis of 34 Sauvignon Blanc wine samples from three different countries and six regions was performed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Linear discriminant analysis (LDA) showed that there were three distinct clusters or classes of wines with different aroma profiles. Wines from the Loire region in France and Australian wines from Tasmania and Western Australia were found to have similar aroma patterns. New Zealand wines from the Marlborough region as well as the Australian ones from Victoria were grouped together based on the volatile composition. Wines from South Australia region formed one discrete class. Seven analytes, most of them esters, were found to be the relevant chemical compounds that characterized the classes. The grouping information obtained by GC-MS, was used to train metal oxide based electronic (MOS-Enose) and mass spectrometry based electronic (MS-Enose) noses. The combined use of solid phase microextraction (SPME) and ethanol removal prior to MOS-Enose analysis, allowed an average error of prediction of the regional origins of Sauvignon Blanc wines of 6.5% compared to 24% when static headspace (SHS) was employed. For MS-Enose, the misclassification rate was higher probably due to the requirement to delimit the m/z range considered.

[Discrimination of varieties of dry red wines based on independent component analysis and BP neural network]

In order to achieve the rapid discrimination of the varieties of red wines, the authors selected 5 kinds of dry red wine for study with Vis/NIR spectroscopy. Firstly, Characteristics of the pattern were analyzed by independent component analysis (ICA). Through comparing the results of modeling performance by different number of independent components, 20 principal components presenting important information of spectra were confirmed as the best number of principal components. The 20 independent components (ICs) extracted by ICA were employed as the inputs of the BP neural networks, and then a three layers of BP neural network was built, category analysis was performed, and the work of building mathematics model and optimizing the algorithm was completed. Five samples from each variety and a total of 25 samples were selected randomly as the prediction sets. The remaining 150 samples were used as the training sets to build the training model, which was validated by the samples of the prediction sets. The recognition rate was 100%. In addition, based on the independent component analysis, the authors selected two characteristic wave bands in reference to vector loading map of mixed matrix. So the pattern recognition methods developed in this paper not only played a good role in the classification and discrimination, but also had the capability to extract the finger feature of red wine, and offered a new way for detecting and developing red wines.

Characterization of selected South African young cultivar wines using FTMIR spectroscopy, gas chromatography, and multivariate data analysis

The powerful combination of analytical chemistry and chemometrics and its application to wine analysis provide a way to gain knowledge and insight into the inherent chemical composition of wine and to objectively distinguish between wines. Extensive research programs are focused on the chemical characterization of wine to establish industry benchmarks and authentication systems. The aim of this study was to investigate the volatile composition and mid-infrared spectroscopic profiles of South African young cultivar wines with chemometrics to identify compositional trends and to distinguish between the different cultivars. Data were generated by gas chromatography and FTMIR spectroscopy and investigated by using analysis of variance (ANOVA), principal component analysis (PCA), and linear discriminant analysis (LDA). Significant differences were found in the volatile composition of the cultivar wines, with marked similarities in the composition of Pinotage wines and white wines, specifically for 2-phenylethanol, butyric acid, ethyl acetate, isoamyl acetate, isoamyl alcohol, and isobutyric acid. Of the 26 compounds that were analyzed, 14 had odor activity values of >1. The volatile composition and FTMIR spectra both contributed to the differentiation between the cultivar wines. The best discrimination model between the white wines was based on FTMIR spectra (98.3% correct classification), whereas a combination of spectra and volatile compounds (86.8% correct classification) was best to discriminate between the red wine cultivars.

Characterization of wines by nuclear magnetic resonance: a work study on wines from the Basilicata region in Italy

We explored the possibility of differentiating Italian wines produced in different regions by means of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) techniques. Ten commercial red Aglianico wines were selected from different areas of the Basilicata region in the south of Italy. Some important components of these wines were identified by the assignments of their (1)H and (13)C resonances using one- and two-dimensional homonuclear and heteronuclear NMR experiments. These data were compared with those obtained from 10 Aglianico wines produced in Campania, another southern Italian region. Differences were found among the wines according to their geographical origin and vintage. A fine discrimination of Aglianico wines from Basilicata and Campania was obtained, suggesting that the selected NMR parameters may be a valuable tool for wine authenticity control.

Toward the authentication of wines of Nemea denomination of origin through cleaved amplified polymorphic sequence (CAPS)-based assay

In the present study, we developed a cleaved amplified polymorphic sequence (CAPS)-based assay as a first attempt to detect fraud in grapevine musts with a long-term objective to establish an analytical methodology to authenticate wines of Nemea denomination of origin (Agiorgitiko). The analytical assay makes use of a single nucleotide polymorphism that discriminates Agiorgitiko and Cabernet Sauvignon varieties. The latter grape variety is one of the major adulterants for Nemea wines. Agiorgitiko grapevine must was spiked with Cabernet Sauvignon in several ratios (v/v) from 50 down to 10%, and the subsequent mixes were subjected to alcoholic microfermentation. DNA was extracted from all mixture samples up to the end of the fermentation process and was subjected to the CAPS assay. Both standard agarose gel and lab-on-a-chip capillary electrophoresis illustrated the ability of the method to detect the presence of Cabernet Sauvignon down to 10% throughout the whole fermentation process.