The Relationship Between Attention, Sensory Processing, and Social Responsiveness Among Adults on the Autism Spectrum

This study evaluated attention, sensory processing, and social responsiveness and the relationship between these constructs among autistic and neurotypical adults. Participants included 24 autistic adults (17-30 years) and 24 neurotypical peers who completed the Test of Everyday Attention, Adolescent/Adult Sensory Profile (AASP), and the Social Responsiveness Scale-2. Autistic individuals showed greater attention, sensory processing, and social responsiveness challenges compared to neurotypical peers. Using mediation models, we showed that the relationship between attention and social responsiveness was mediated by sensory processing, specifically the low registration and sensation-seeking AASP quadrants. The relationship between attention, sensory processing, and social responsiveness suggests that adults with greater attention issues may have greater sensory and social challenges. Specifically, having poor attention may lead to poor sensory processing skills which compound poor social responsiveness. Understanding the relationships between these domains is critical for developing effective interventions and support for autistic adults.

Revised Dual Task Screen is a Valid Measure of Dual Task Performance: Developing a Motor and Cognitive Dual Task Measure with Healthy Female Athletes

Multitasking measures, such as dual task assessments, are particularly useful in detecting subtle deficits that can influence occupational performance after injuries, like sports-related concussion (SRC). In past work, our research team developed and revised a dual task assessment, the Dual Task Screen (DTS). Here, we evaluated nineteen healthy athletes using the revised DTS to address two specific research objectives. First, to replicate pilot study findings and demonstrate that the revised DTS is sensitive to dual task motor costs (i.e. poorer motor performance under dual task conditions, compared to single task conditions). Second, to evaluate if the revised DTS is sensitive to dual task cognitive costs (i.e. poorer cognitive performance under dual task conditions, compared to single task conditions). We confirmed that the revised DTS was sensitive to both dual task motor and cognitive costs; thus it is a valid measure of dual task performance. These positive findings support its prospective, future use by occupational therapists to evaluate multitasking performance after injuries, like SRC, or other injuries and illnesses that elicit deficits affecting optimal occupational performance.

Developmental trends of auditory novelty oddball P3 while accounting for N2 in 7- to 25-year-olds

Many previous studies examining developmental trends in P3 amplitude or latency have used a two-stimulus (standard and target) oddball paradigm. Fewer studies exist using the novelty oddball paradigm, a three-tone (standard, target, and novel) paradigm. In this study with 204 typically developing participants aged 7-25 years, the influence of participant traits-age and sex-on the developmental trends of P3 peak-to-peak amplitude and latency were examined. Additionally, interactions between the three tones of the novelty oddball paradigm and scalp sites on P3 amplitude and latency were evaluated. While previous studies using baseline-to-peak measures have shown smaller P3 amplitude in children compared with adults, this study, using peak-to-peak measures (P3 minus N2 amplitude), found the opposite effect with children having larger P3 amplitudes than adults. This finding is explained by further analyses of N2, representing discrimination. N2 baseline-to-peak amplitude significantly predicted P3 baseline-to-peak amplitude; a mediation effect such that as N2 becomes less negative, P3 becomes larger. Regression analyses revealed that developmental trends of the P3 amplitude were primarily linear, but trends in P3 latency were mostly non-linear. Sex differences were observed, although limited to latency measures. Results from ancovas found significant interactions between the three tones and between frontal (Fz) and parietal (Pz) sites, with larger P3 amplitude during target and novel tones at Pz than Fz, and larger amplitudes during frequent tones at Fz than Pz. These findings highlight the importance of considering more than P3 amplitude in understanding developmental trends in cognitive processing during oddball paradigms.

Revised Dual Task Screen is a Valid Measure of Dual Task Performance: Developing a Motor and Cognitive Dual Task Measure with Healthy Female Athletes

Multitasking measures, such as dual task assessments, are particularly useful in detecting subtle deficits that can influence occupational performance after injuries, like sports-related concussion (SRC). In past work, our research team developed and revised a dual task assessment, the Dual Task Screen (DTS). Here, we evaluated nineteen healthy athletes using the revised DTS to address two specific research objectives. First, to replicate pilot study findings and demonstrate that the revised DTS is sensitive to dual task motor costs (i.e. poorer motor performance under dual task conditions, compared to single task conditions). Second, to evaluate if the revised DTS is sensitive to dual task cognitive costs (i.e. poorer cognitive performance under dual task conditions, compared to single task conditions). We confirmed that the revised DTS was sensitive to both dual task motor and cognitive costs; thus it is a valid measure of dual task performance. These positive findings support its prospective, future use by occupational therapists to evaluate multitasking performance after injuries, like SRC, or other injuries and illnesses that elicit deficits affecting optimal occupational performance.

Modeling electrophysiological measures of decision-making and performance monitoring in neurotypical children engaging in a speeded flanker task

This study aims to use structural equation modeling (SEM) to investigate the role of error processing in behavioral adaptation in children by testing relationships between error-related and stimulus-related event-related potentials (ERPs) obtained from two sessions of a speeded Eriksen flanker task. First, path models of averaged ERP components and mean response times (N1 → P2 → N2 → P3 → RTs) while controlling for trait effects, age, and sex, on each was examined separately for correct and incorrect trials from each session. While the model demonstrated acceptable fit statistics, the four models yielded diverse results. Next, path models for correct and incorrect trials were tested using latent variables defined by factoring together respective measures of ERP component amplitudes from each session. Comparison of correct and incorrect models revealed significant differences in the relationships between the successive measures of neural processing after controlling for trait effects. Moreover, latent variable models controlling for both trait and session-specific state variables yielded excellent model fit while models without session-specific state variables did not. In the final model, the error-related neural activity (i.e., the ERN and Pe) from incorrect trials was found to significantly relate to the stream of neural processes contributing to trials with the correct behavior. Importantly, the relationship between RT and error detection in the final model signifies a brain-and-behavior feedback loop. These findings provided empirical evidence that supports the adaptive orienting theory of error processing by demonstrating how the neural signals of error processing influence behavioral adaptations that facilitate correct behavioral performance.

Expanding our understanding of sensory gating in children with autism spectrum disorders

OBJECTIVE

This study examined sensory gating in children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Gating is usually examined at the P50 component and rarely at mid- and late-latency components.

METHODS

Electroencephalography data were recorded during a paired-click paradigm, from 18 children with ASD (5-12 years), and 18 typically-developing (TD) children. Gating was assessed at the P50, N1, P2, and N2 event-related potential components. Parents of all participants completed the Short Sensory Profile (SSP).

RESULTS

TD children showed gating at all components while children with ASD showed gating only at P2 and N2. Compared to TD children, the ASD group showed significantly reduced gating at P50, N1, and P2. No group differences were found at N2, suggesting typical N2 gating in the ASD group. Time-frequency analyses showed reduced orientation and neural synchronization of auditory stimuli. P50 and N1 gating significantly correlated with the SSP.

CONCLUSION

Although children with ASD have impaired early orientation and filtering of auditory stimuli, they exhibited gating at P2 and N2 components suggesting use of different gating mechanisms compared to TD children. Sensory deficits in ASD may relate to gating.

SIGNIFICANCE

The data provide novel evidence for impaired neural orientation, filtering, and synchronization in children with ASD.

Test-Retest Reliability of Electroencephalographic Measures of Performance Monitoring in Children and Adults

This study examined the test-retest reliability of the error-related negativity (ERN) and error positivity (Pe) amplitudes using a Flanker task in 118 neurotypical children and 53 adults before and after latency jitter adjustments. The reliability of the ERN and Pe amplitudes was moderate for children and moderate to strong for adults. The latency variability adjustment did not improve the reliability of the ERN and Pe amplitudes for either group, suggesting that latency variability may be a trait-like measure. For comparison purposes, the reliability of the stimulus-locked ERPs was strong for correct trials, yet the reliability was weak for incorrect trials.

Sensory Processing and Attention Profiles Among Children With Sensory Processing Disorders and Autism Spectrum Disorders

This study explores the differences in the profile of relationships between sensory processing and attention abilities among children with sensory processing disorder (SPD), autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and typically developing (TD) children. The Test of Everyday Attention for Children (TEA-Ch), a performance-based measure of attention, was administered to 69 children (TD: n = 24; SPD: n = 21; ASD: n = 24), ages 6-10 years. All participants' parents completed the Short Sensory Profile (SSP), a standardized parent-report measure of sensory-related behaviors. Discriminant analyses using the TEA-Ch and the SSP domains revealed two classification functions; the first revealed that both clinical groups significantly differed from the TD group with greater sensory processing challenges in the categories of auditory filtering, under-responsive/seeks sensation, low energy/weak, and taste/smell sensitivity subscales of the SSP. The second function discriminated between the two clinical groups, indicating that children with ASD had significantly greater control and sustained attention deficits and less sensory issues than did children with SPD. Together, the two functions correctly classified 76.8% of the participants as to their group membership. The different profiles of sensory processing and attention abilities in children with SPD and ASD may provide guidance in identifying appropriate individualized therapeutic strategies for these children.

Genomic heterogeneity of Dichelobacter nodosus within and between UK sheep flocks and between age groups within a flock

Background

Footrot and interdigital dermatitis are endemic infectious diseases in all sheep farming regions, impairing welfare and production. The development of efficacious vaccines against the primary causative pathogen has been hampered by the extensive antigenic diversity of Dichelobacter nodosus. Understanding the heterogeneity of the pathogen within and between flocks is essential if the feasibility of bespoke vaccine production is to be assessed for use in the U.K.

Results

In this study 56 ewe and lamb isolates from 9 flocks were compared by D. nodosus serogroup and Multi Locus Sequence Type which provides significantly enhanced discriminatory power for molecular epidemiology. Serogroup heterogeneity between flocks ranged from two to five unique serogroups per flock. Three flocks contained isolates of two serogroups, two flocks contained isolates of three serogroups and one flock included isolates of five serogroups. Analysis of 25 isolates from one flock with high prevalence of lameness, identified that serogroup and sequence type was significantly correlated with age. Significantly higher proportion of lambs were infected with serogroup B (principally ST85) as opposed to serogroup H (principally ST86), which predominated amongst adult sheep.

Conclusions

Genomic heterogeneity of the pathogen was significantly lower within flock compared to heterogenicity observed between flocks. Furthermore, this study indicates that within a flock, the host-pathogen dynamics and susceptibility to particular D. nodosus strains may be age dependent.

Assessing the Impact of Music Therapy on Sensory Gating and Attention in Children With Autism: A Pilot and Feasibility Study

Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) frequently demonstrate atypical processing of sensory information and deficits in attentional abilities. These deficits may impact social and academic functioning. Although music therapy has been used to address sensory and attentional needs, there are no studies including physiologic indicators of sensory processing to determine the impact of music therapy. The objective of this study was to determine the feasibility of conducting study protocols, determine the adequacy of electroencephalography (EEG) and behavioral measures in identifying attentional differences in children with ASD compared with typically developing (TD) children, and to gather preliminary evidence of intervention effects on brain responses and attention outcomes. Seven children with high functioning ASD ages 5 -12 and seven age- and gender-matched TD completed procedures measuring brain responses (EEG) and behaviors (the Test of Everyday Attention for Children). Children with ASD then completed a 35-min individual music therapy attention protocol delivered by a board-certified music therapist ten times over 5 weeks. Children with ASD completed measures of brain responses and behavior post-intervention to determine pre- to post-test differences. Consent and completion rates were 100% for children who met the study criteria. Feasibility measures indicated that measures of brain responsivity could be used to determine attentional differences between children with ASD and typical children. Initial outcome data for brain responses and behavior indicated positive trends for the impact of music therapy on selective attention skills.

Developmental trends of performance monitoring measures in 7- to 25-year-olds: Unraveling the complex nature of brain measures

This study explores how trial-to-trial latency variability contributes to the developmental trends observed in ERN amplitude found in the incorrect trials of a performance monitoring task, the visual flanker task. An Adaptive Woody filter was used to measure and correct for the trial-to-trial latency variability of the ERN in 240 participants aged 7-25 years. Using three measures of latency variability, the degree of trial-to-trial latency variability was shown to decrease as the age of the participants increased from 7 to 25 years. The success of the Adaptive Woody filter technique to remove the trial-to-trial latency variability was demonstrated in a straightforward manner by the significant changes in the measures of fit and intraindividual variability obtained before and after applying the filter. After the latency variability effects were removed and adjusted averaged ERPs were obtained, a more subtle but significant nonlinear developmental trend was still found in the amplitude of the ERN component.

Towards a unified model of event-related potentials as phases of stimulus-to-response processing

This study demonstrates the utility of combining principles of connectionist theory with a sophisticated statistical approach, structural equation modeling (SEM), to better understand brain-behavior relationships in studies using event-related potentials (ERPs). The models show how sequential phases of neural processing measured by averaged ERP waveform components can successfully predict task behavior (response time; RT) while accounting for individual differences in maturation and sex. The models assume that all ERP measures are affected by individual differences in physical and mental state that inflate measurement error. ERP data were collected from 154 neurotypical children (7-13 years, M = 10.22, SD = 1.48; 74 males) performing a cued Go/No-Go task during two separate sessions. Using SEM, we show a latent variable path model with good fit (e.g., χ²(51) = 56.20, p = .25; RMSEA = .03; CFI = .99; SRMR = .06) yielding moderate-to-large predictive coefficients from N1 through the E-wave latent variables (N1 β = -.29 → P2 β = -.44 → N2 β = .28 → P3 β =.64→ E-wave), which in turn significantly predicted RT (β =.34, p = .02). Age significantly related to N1 and P3 latent variables as well as RT (β =.31, -.58, & -.40 respectively), and Sex significantly related to the E-wave latent variable and RT (β =.36 & 0.21 respectively). Additionally, the final model suggested that individual differences in emotional and physical state accounted for a significant proportion of variance in ERP measurements, and that individual states systematically varied across sessions (i.e., the variance was not just random noise). These findings suggest that modeling ERPs as a system of inter-related processes may be a more informative approach to examining brain-behavior relationships in neurotypical and clinical groups than traditional analysis techniques.

Evaluating Motor Control Improves Discrimination of Adolescents with and without Sports Related Concussion

Disrupted motor performance is increasingly recognized as a critical sequela of concussion which may have relevance for diagnosis and treatment. In 17 adolescents with recent concussion and 20 never-concussed controls, we evaluated the discriminant ability of a commonly used neurocognitive measure compared to a motor subtle sign exam, which evaluates gait, balance, and fine and gross motor control. We found that the motor subtle sign exam had better discriminant ability than the neurocognitive measure, but combining both measures was superior to analyses with individual measures (Wilks' ƛ = .297, p < .001). This supports that there is an added benefit of evaluating motor control along with neurocognitive capacities after suspected concussion to enhance diagnosis and treatment of injury.

Behavioral and Neural Sensory Processing in Young Adults With Autism Spectrum Disorder

Date Presented 4/19/2018

Results of this study indicate that young adults with high-functioning autism spectrum disorder have significant deficits in both behavioral and neural measures of sensory processing. Additionally, attention influences early stages of neural sensory processing.

Primary Author and Speaker: Jewel Crasta

Additional Authors and Speakers: Patricia L. Davies

Contributing Authors: William J. Gavin

Pollution signature for temperate reef biodiversity is short and simple

Pollution increasingly impacts healthy functioning of marine ecosystems globally. Here we quantify concentrations of major pollutant types (heavy metals/sewage/petrochemicals/plastics) as accumulated within marine sediments on and/or immediately adjacent to shallow reefs for 42 sites spanning coastal population centres across south-eastern Australia. Gradients in pollutants were revealed, but few pollutants co-varied, while increasing wave exposure ostensibly diluted concentrations of all pollutants except microplastics. Examination of reef biodiversity indicators revealed that maximum size of fauna and flora, a key life-history parameter summarised by the Community shortness index, plus declining functional and species richness, were the most sensitive bioindicators of pollutants - for which heavy metals and nutrient-enrichment were most pervasive. Results indicate that assemblages of biogenic habitat formers and associated fauna collapse from "long and complicated" to "short and simplified" configurations in response to increasing pollution, and this community signature may form an effective bioindicator to track human-driven degradation.

Modeling the interrelationships between brain activity and trait attention measures to predict individual differences in reaction times in children during a Go/No-Go task

Many researchers are utilizing event-related potentials (ERPs) to better understand brain-behavior relationships across development. The present study demonstrates how structural equation modeling (SEM) techniques can be used to refine descriptions of brain-behavior relationships in a sample of neurotypical children. We developed an exploratory latent variable model in which trait measures of maturation and attention are related to neural processing and task behaviors obtained during a cued Go/No-Go task. Model findings are compared to results of traditional analysis techniques such as bivariate correlations. The data suggest that more sophisticated statistical approaches are beneficial to accurately interpreting the nature of brain-behavior relationships.

Attention and Sensory Characteristics in Children With High-Functioning Autism and Sensory Processing Disorder

Date Presented 3/30/2017

Children with sensory processing disorder and high-functioning autism have different attention and sensory processing characteristics. These results can help therapists identify specific treatment strategies while working on attention and sensory processing skills with these children.

Primary Author and Speaker: Mei-Heng Lin

Additional Authors and Speakers: Jewel Mascarenhas, Patricia L. Davies

Contributing Authors: Emily Marshall, Blythe LaGasse, William J. Gavin

Motor skill development in low-income, at-risk preschoolers: A community-based longitudinal intervention study

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to: (1) determine the status of fundamental movement skill (FMS) performance in low-income, at-risk preschoolers; and (2) evaluate the impact of the Food Friends Get Movin' with Mighty Moves (MM) program on improving children's FMS at two-year follow-up.

DESIGN

Longitudinal, quasi-experimental study with matched controls.

METHODS

The Colorado LEAP study was conducted in four Head Start/preschools (two intervention, two control) serving children aged 3-5 years. MM was delivered to the intervention group during preschool. The Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency, Second Edition (BOT-2) subtests for balance, running speed and agility, upper-limb coordination (object control (OC) skills) and strength were administered to children at baseline, post-intervention in preschool, one-year follow-up (kindergarten), and two-year follow-up (first grade).

RESULTS

Compared to the normative sample's mean, the mean scaled score for all participants at baseline was significantly lower for balance (p=0.016) and OC skills (p<0.001). At two-year follow-up, the means of balance for all participants and OC skills for just the control group were significantly lower than those of the normative sample (p≤0.001). Hierarchical linear regression analyses revealed a significant intervention effect for OC skills with the overall model accounting for 41% of variance at two-year follow-up, F_(6,165)=20.45, p<0.001. No intervention effects were found for the other three BOT-2 subtests.

CONCLUSIONS

Delivering the MM program in preschool confers a lasting impact on FMS, specifically OC skills, in at-risk elementary school children. Results suggest that at-risk preschoolers are already behind in FMS development and these delays will continue through first grade.

Participation in Early Childhood Educational Environments for Young Children with and Without Developmental Disabilities and Delays: A Mixed Methods Study

AIMS

This mixed methods study examined: 1) how young children with and without developmental disabilities and delays participate in daycare or preschool activities; 2) similarities and differences in environmental factors impacting daycare or preschool participation; and 3) strategies used by parents who desired a change in their child's participation.

METHODS

Data were drawn from 129 parents of young children with and without developmental disabilities and delays (mean age = 49.3 months) residing in North America. Summary and item-level group differences based on disability status were assessed for participation and environmental supports to participation. Narrative data on parental strategies were content coded, transformed into numerical counts, and summarized to identify strategies commonly employed by parents to promote their child's participation.

RESULTS

Moderate to large disability related group differences in participation and environmental support to participation were found even after controlling for confounding effects of child age, child gender, and family income. Parents commonly described strategies focused on "child care tasks" and "child peer groups," irrespective of the type(s) of change they desired.

CONCLUSIONS

Study findings suggest that discrepancies in school participation between young children with and without disabilities and delays can be detected and intervened on during the early childhood period.

Validation of School Function Assessment with Elementary School Children

The present study was conducted to examine the validity of the School Function Assessment (SFA). The study sample consisted of 64 children: 29 in general education (GEN) without disabilities, 18 with learning disabilities (LD), and 17 with cerebral palsy (CP). Convergent validity was supported by the significant correlation (r values ranged from .56 to .72) found between the scores on the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales (classroom edition) to comparable scales of the SFA. Construct validity of the SFA using the known groups method was also supported. Significant differences in SFA scores among the 3 groups were found using the Kruskal-Wallis analysis of variance and multiple comparisons. The GEN group differed from the LD group in cognitive/behavioral subtests, the CP group differed from the GEN group in all areas of the SFA, and the LD and CP groups differed on the physical domain of the SFA. Finally, the discriminant analysis of scores on the SFA showed the high percentage of participants being correctly classified in the respective groups (93.1% for GEN, 55.8% for LD, and 88.2% for CP). These results provide new evidence for the validity of the SFA using methodologies not previously reported in the literature. Given the unique features as well as the provided psychometrical properties of the SFA, this recently developed functional assessment should be considered a valid instrument for use in school settings.

The Test-Retest Reliability of the Visually Evoked Contingent Negative Variation (CNV) in Children and Adults

Establishing the reliability of event-related potentials is critical for future applications to biomarker development and clinical research. Few studies have examined the reliability of the contingent negative variation (CNV), and only in adults. The current study explored test-retest reliability of the visually evoked CNV and its embedded components, the O-wave and the E-wave, in children (7-13 years) and young adults (19-28 years) during a visual Go/No-Go task over 1-2 weeks. Test-retest reliability of the components was moderate for children, and low-to-moderate for adults. These findings were in contrast to previous work with adults showing moderate-to-high reliability of the auditory-evoked CNV.

Young Children's Food Neophobia Characteristics and Sensory Behaviors Are Related to Their Food Intake

BACKGROUND

Food neophobia in children has been associated with poor dietary variety and nutrient intakes. Underlying characteristics that may predispose a child to neophobia have not been widely studied.

OBJECTIVE

We investigated the associations between children's food neophobia, sensory sensitivity, and dietary intake in a diverse sample of typically developing preschoolers.

METHODS

Caregiver reports of children's food neophobia and sensory behaviors (SBs) as measured by the Food Neophobia Scale and the Sensory Profile, children's observed weight outcome [body mass index z score (BMIz)], and children's food intake as estimated from the Block Kids Food Screener were collected at baseline in the Colorado LEAP (Longitudinal Eating and Physical Activity Study) study of childhood obesity. Preschool-aged children (n = 249; 136 girls, 113 boys; aged 55.6 ± 4.7 mo; BMIz = 0.54 ± 1.14) and caregivers [n = 180; 57 Hispanic, 119 non-Hispanic white (NHW), 4 unknown] participated. Data were analyzed by Pearson correlations and multivariate hierarchical linear regression analyses.

RESULTS

Lower scores for children's oral sensory characteristics (i.e., more atypical) were related to higher neophobia ratings (r = -0.53, P < 0.001), and neophobia was negatively associated with reported vegetable intake (r = -0.31, P = 0.001) and dietary variety (r = -0.22, P < 0.001). Hispanic caregivers reported more atypical child SB scores (46.2 ± 8.8) than did NHW caregivers (50.5 ± 7.6; P = 0.006); however, no differences were noted for neophobia and SB scores by parent income and education or child sex. Neophobia was negatively associated with vegetable intake and dietary variety (P < 0.001 for both). SBs were associated with children's energy intake from sugar-sweetened beverages in bivariate analyses (r = -0.18, P < 0.05); however, in regression models, only ethnicity was significantly associated with energy from sugar-sweetened beverages (P < 0.001). Hispanic ethnicity was positively associated with sugar-sweetened beverage consumption (P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Children's neophobia and sensory sensitivity may be important in understanding underlying issues related to limited food acceptance in typically developing young children and for helping caregivers facilitate healthy dietary intake patterns for their children. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT01937481.

Psychometric properties of the Young Children's Participation and Environment Measure

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the psychometric properties of the newly developed Young Children's Participation and Environment Measure (YC-PEM).

DESIGN

Cross-sectional study.

SETTING

Data were collected online and by telephone.

PARTICIPANTS

Convenience and snowball sampling methods were used to survey caregivers of children (N=395, comprising children with [n=93] and without [n=302] developmental disabilities and delays) between the ages of 0 and 5 years (mean age±SD, 35.33±20.29 mo) and residing in North America.

INTERVENTIONS

Not applicable.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

The YC-PEM includes 3 participation scales and 1 environment scale. Each scale is assessed across 3 settings: home, daycare/preschool, and community. Data were analyzed to derive estimates of internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and construct validity.

RESULTS

Internal consistency ranged from .68 to .96 and .92 to .96 for the participation and environment scales, respectively. Test-retest reliability (2-4 wk) ranged from .31 to .93 for participation scales and from .91 to .94 for the environment scale. One of 3 participation scales and the environment scale demonstrated significant group differences by disability status across all 3 settings, and all 4 scales discriminated between disability groups for the daycare/preschool setting. The participation scales exhibited small to moderate positive associations with functional performance scores.

CONCLUSIONS

Results lend initial support for the use of the YC-PEM in research to assess the participation of young children with disabilities and delays in terms of (1) home, daycare/preschool, and community participation patterns; (2) perceived environmental supports and barriers to participation; and (3) activity-specific parent strategies to promote participation.

Home food and activity assessment. Development and validation of an instrument for diverse families of young children

The purpose of this study was to refine and psychometrically test an instrument measuring the home food and activity environment of geographically and economically diverse families of preschool aged children. Caregivers of preschool aged children (n = 83) completed a modified self-report questionnaire. Reliably trained researchers conducted independent observations on 25 randomly selected homes. Agreement statistics were conducted at the item level (154 total items) to determine reliability. Frequency counts were calculated to identify item availability. Results showed Kappa statistics were high (.67-1.00) between independent researchers but varied between researchers and parents resulting in 85 items achieving criterion validity (Kappa >.60). Analyses of reliable items revealed the presence in the home of a high frequency of unhealthy snack foods, high fat milk and low frequency of availability of fruits/vegetables and low fat milk. Fifty-two percent of the homes were arranged with a television in the preschool child's bedroom. Physical Activity devices also were found to have high frequency availability. Families reporting lower education reported higher levels of sugar sweetened beverages and less low-fat dairy (p < .05) compared with higher education families. Low-income families (<$27K per year) reported significantly fewer Physical Activity devices (p < .001) compared with higher income families. Hispanic families reported significantly higher numbers of Sedentary Devices (p < .05) compared with non-Hispanic families. There were no significant differences between demographic comparisons on available fruits/vegetables, meats, whole grains, and regular fat dairy. A modified home food and activity instrument was found to reliably identify foods and activity devices with geographically and economically diverse families.