Does Consumer Credit Precede or Follow Health Among Older Adults? An Investigation in the Advanced Cognitive Training for Independent and Vital Elderly (ACTIVE) Trial

Background and Objectives

Consumer credit has shown increasing relevance to the health of older adults; however, studies have not been able to assess the extent to which creditworthiness influences future health or health influences future creditworthiness. We assessed the relationships between 4-year pre and postmorbid consumer credit history and self-rated physical and mental health outcomes among older adults.

Research Design and Methods

Generalized estimating equations models assessed pre and postmorbid credit history (credit scores, derogatory accounts, and unpaid accounts in collections) and the onset of poor self-rated health (SF-36 score <50) among 1,740 participants aged 65+ in the Advanced Cognitive Training for Independent and Vital Elderly study from 2001 to 2017, linked to TransUnion consumer credit data.

Results

In any given year, up to 1/4 of participants had a major derogatory, unpaid, or collections account, and up to 13% of the sample had poor health. Each 50-point increase in credit score trended toward a 5% lower odds of poor health in the next 1 year, a 6% lower odds in the next 2 years, and a statistically significant finding of 13% lower odds by 3 years. A drop in credit score was associated with a 10% greater odds of poor health in the next year, and having a major derogatory account was associated with an 86% greater odds of poor health in the next 3 years. After poor health onset, credit scores continued to see significant losses up to the 3 years, with larger decrements over time.

Discussion and Implications

Having a major derogatory account or a sudden loss in credit may be a time to monitor older adults for changes in health. After a downturn in health, supporting older adults to manage their debt may help stabilize their credit.

Effects of Cognitive Training on Alzheimer's Disease and Related Dementias: The Moderating Role of Social Determinants of Health

Objective: We examined whether social determinants of health (SDoH) are associated with Alzheimer's disease and related dementias (ADRD) risk and the effects of cognitive training over a 20-year follow-up period. Methods: Data were obtained from 1605 participants in ACTIVE. SDoH measures were created using baseline data at the individual and neighborhood level. Incident ADRD was defined using administrative claims data (1999-2019). Cause-specific hazard models estimated associations between SDoH and claims-based diagnosed ADRD. Results: Higher scores on neighborhood and built environment were associated with lower ADRD risk. Trained participants obtained a greater degree of protection from ADRD when they had higher scores for SDoH domains associated with health care and education access. However, there were fewer significant SDoH moderation effects on cognitive training than expected. Discussion: Future work should continue to explore culturally tailored cognitive training interventions to reduce ADRD risk associated with SDoH that disproportionately affects racially diverse aging populations.

Beyond Big Five trait domains: Stability and change in personality facets across midlife and old age

OBJECTIVE

Accumulated evidence indicates both stable and malleable parts of inter-individual differences in the broad Big Five domains. Less is known, however, about stability and change at the more diversified facet level. With the current study, we fill this gap by investigating personality stability and change across midlife and old age.

METHOD

We apply local structural equation measurement models and second-order growth curve models to four waves of data obtained with the full NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) collected over 11 years from 1667 adults (Mage  = 62.69 years, SDage  = 15.62, 55% female) who participated in the Seattle Longitudinal Study.

RESULTS

Measurement invariance analyses indicated that the psychometric properties of the NEO-PI-R facets are comparable across time and age. Results revealed substantial rank-order stabilities across all facets, yet the exact pattern varied strongly between facets of the same trait and across traits. Mean-level change of facets from midlife to old age largely mirrored the mean-level change observed for the broader traits.

CONCLUSION

We discuss conceptual implications and argue that in the face of overall stability across midlife and old age, changes in the rank-ordering of people reveals a much more complex and diverse pattern of development than analyses at the trait level suggest.

Does Consumer Credit Precede or Follow Changes in Cognitive Impairment Among Older Adults? An Investigation in the Advanced Cognitive Training for Independent and Vital Elderly (ACTIVE) Trial

OBJECTIVES

We assessed the relationships between pre- and post-morbid consumer credit history (credit scores, debts unpaid, or in collections) and classification of mild (or greater) cognitive impairment (MCI).

METHODS

Generalized Estimating Equation models assessed pre-and post-morbid credit history and MCI risk among 1740 participants aged 65+ in the Advanced Cognitive Training for Independent and Vital Elderly (ACTIVE) study, linked to TransUnion consumer credit data.

RESULTS

Each 50-point increase in credit score was associated with up to 8% lower odds of MCI in the next 3 years. In contrast, new unpaid collections over doubled the odds of having MCI in the next 3 years. MCI was associated with subsequent credit score declines and a 47%-71% greater risk of having a new unpaid collection in the next 4 years.

DISCUSSION

Credit declines may signal risk for future MCI. MCI may lead to financial challenges that warrant credit monitoring interventions for older adults.

Rural-Urban Differences in Cognition: Findings From the Advanced Cognitive Training for Independent and Vital Elderly Trial

ObjectivesWe examined associations between three geographic areas (urban, suburban, rural) and cognition (memory, reasoning, processing speed) over a 10-year period. Methods: Data were obtained from 2539 participants in the Advanced Cognitive Training for Independent and Vital Elderly (ACTIVE) trial. Multilevel, mixed-effects linear regression was used to estimate cognitive trajectories by geographical areas over 10 years, after adjusting for social determinants of health. Results: Compared to urban and suburban participants, rural participants fared worse on all cognitive measures-memory (B = -1.17 (0.17)), reasoning (B = -1.55 (0.19)), and processing speed (B = 0.76 (0.19)) across the 10-year trajectory. Across geographic areas, greater economic stability, health care access and quality, and neighborhood resources were associated with better cognition over time. Discussion: Findings highlight the importance of geographical location when examining cognition later in life. More research examining place-based life experiences is needed to make the greatest impact on geographically diverse communities.

The ACTIVE Study: Association of Race and Social Determinants of Health (SDoH) with Long-Term Outcomes and Cognitive Training Effects

Objective: The purpose of this article is to introduce a special issue on the ACTIVE project examining the association between race and social determinants of health (SDoH) and long-term participant outcomes and training effectiveness for older Black/African Americans and Whites in the ACTIVE (for Advanced Cognitive Training for Independent and Vital Elderly) Trial on cognitive abilities, everyday functioning, and incidence of dementia. The ACTIVE study is the largest randomized clinical trial (N = 2802) of the efficacy of three types of cognitive training (memory, reasoning, speed of processing) in improving cognitive and everyday functioning in normal older adults, with follow-ups extending through 5 and 10 years post-intervention. Method: We provide background and context for studying the multiple domains of SDoH in understanding long-term participant outcomes in the ACTIVE trial and racial disparities in the efficacy of cognitive training and summarize the 11 articles in this special issue. Results: Articles in this special issue address several cross-cutting themes. These include 1) a focus on SDoH and race in relation to three cognitive abilities and driving; 2) cognitive training outcomes in older Black/African Americans (B/AA); 3) race differences in everyday function; and 4) associations of various risk factors (e.g., cardiovascular disease, obesity, depression) and protective factors (e.g., occupational complexity) for cognitive decline with health disparities in incident dementia and mortality. Conclusion: In cognitive training studies with cognitively healthy older adults, it is important to consider how factors such as race and SDoH relate to long-term participant outcomes and how they moderate intervention effects.

Disparities in First Instrumental Activity of Daily Living Difficulty between Black and White Older Adults: Findings from the Advanced Cognitive Training in Independent and Vital Elderly Study

Objectives: Few studies have examined differences in age of onset of first self-reported instrumental activities of daily living difficulty, much less differences by race. Our objective was to determine whether there are differences in the first reported difficulty with IADLs between Black and white older adults. Methods: We analyzed data from N = 1168 participants in the Advanced Cognitive Training in Independent and Vital Elderly (ACTIVE) study. A multiple group discrete-time multiple-event process survival mixture (MEPSUM) model was used to estimate the hazard of incident IADL difficulty in seven IADL task groups. Results: No statistically significant differences were identified in the first reported IADL task group difficulty between Black and white older adults. Discussion: Our findings indicate similar patterns of early IADL difficulty in Black and white older adults, suggesting that previously reported racial disparities in ability to perform IADLs may be attributable to differences in absolute risk, not timing.

Evaluating Social Determinants of Health Domains and Their Predictive Validity Within Black/African American and White Older Adults From the ACTIVE Trial

OBJECTIVE

To assess domains of social determinants of health (SDoH) and their associations with cognition and quality of life.

METHOD

This investigation uses baseline data from individuals participating in the ACTIVE trial (n = 2505) to reproduce the SDoH domains described in Healthy People 2030 (economic stability, health care, education, neighborhood and built environment, and social and community context). Results: Results support using data from the ACTIVE trial to assess all five SDoH domains, and the ability of the composites to predict baseline performance on measures of cognition and self-reported quality of life within a sample of older adults. Additionally, higher SDoH domain scores were associated with better functioning on composite measures of cognition and higher scores for mental and general health-related quality of life with Access to Healthcare associated with all outcomes. Discussion: These findings can inform investigators interested in assessing multiple domains of SDoH and highlight the importance of access to health care within older Black/African American and White older adults.

Long-Term Effects of Cognitive Training on All-Cause Mortality in US Older Adults

Objectives: Cognitive abilities have been implicated as predictors of mortality in older adults. This study examines the effects of cognitive training on mortality 20 years post-intervention. Methods: Data come from the Advanced Cognitive Training for Independent and Vital Elderly (ACTIVE) randomized control trial (N = 2802). Participants were cognitively and physically healthy, community-dwelling adults aged 65 and older. Cox proportional hazard models were used to investigate (1) the association between baseline cognition and mortality risk and (2) the effect of ACTIVE cognitive training (memory, reasoning, and speed of processing) on mortality risk 20 years post-intervention. Results: Higher baseline cognition predicted lower mortality risk 20 years post-intervention. No significant effects of ACTIVE cognitive training in memory, reasoning, or speed of processing on mortality risk were observed. Discussion: More work is needed to identify cognitive training interventions that may lead to lower mortality risks in later adulthood.

Acting Like a Baby Boomer? Birth-Cohort Differences in Adults' Personality Trajectories During the Last Half a Century

Society and developmental theory generally assume that there are wide generational differences in personality. Yet evidence showing historical change in the levels of adult Big Five traits is scarce and particularly so for developmental change. We tracked adult trajectories of personality in 4,732 participants (age: M = 52.93 years, SD = 16.69; 53% female) from the Seattle Longitudinal Study (born 1883-1976) across 50 years. Multilevel models revealed evidence for historical change in personality: At age 56, later-born cohorts exhibited lower levels of maturity-related traits (agreeableness and neuroticism) and higher levels of agency-related traits (extraversion and openness) than earlier-born cohorts. Historical changes in agreeableness and neuroticism were more pronounced among young adults, but changes in openness were less pronounced. Cohort differences in change were rare and were observed only for agreeableness; within-person increases were more pronounced among later-born cohorts. Our results yield the first evidence for historical change in the Big Five across adulthood and point to the roles of delayed social-investment and maturity effects.

Adult development and aging in historical context

Human functioning and development are shaped by sociocultural contexts and by the historical changes that occur in these contexts. Over the last century, sociocultural changes such as increases in early life education have profoundly reshaped normative developmental sequences. In this article, we first briefly review how history-graded changes have influenced levels of objective performance and subjective evaluations among older adults and conclude that old age in countries such as the United States and Germany is getting younger, both on behavioral measures and in people's own perception. Second, we put these findings in a larger perspective and note some of the "presumed" causes driving historical change. Third, we identify key aspects of change that need to be further described, including history-graded change in (a) the formative role of experiences made across adulthood; (b) within-person trajectories of adult development and aging, including rates of change, patterns of variation, and causal influence; (c) the structure of very old age and the end of life; and (d) what may be expected in the forthcoming decades. We suggest a number of reasons why the rosy picture of historical change obtained for older adults over the last century may not necessarily continue in the future. In a final step, we outline promising methods that might be used to discover and test mechanisms driving history-graded changes, and to inform projection and optimization of functioning and development in future generations of older adults. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Application of neuropsychological criteria to classify mild cognitive impairment in the active study

Objective: Comprehensive neuropsychological criteria (NP criteria) for mild cognitive impairment (MCI) has reduced diagnostic errors and better predicted progression to dementia than conventional MCI criteria that rely on a single impaired score and/or subjective report. This study aimed to implement an actuarial approach to classifying MCI in the Advanced Cognitive Training for Independent and Vital Elderly (ACTIVE) study. Method: ACTIVE study participants (N = 2,755) were classified as cognitively normal (CN) or as having MCI using NP criteria. Estimated proportion of MCI participants and reversion rates were examined as well as baseline characteristics by MCI subtype. Mixed effect models examined associations of MCI subtype with 10-year trajectories of self-reported independence and difficulty performing instrumental activities of daily living (IADLs). Results: The proportion of MCI participants was estimated to be 18.8%. Of those with MCI at baseline, 19.2% reverted to CN status for all subsequent visits. At baseline, the multidomain-amnestic MCI group generally had the greatest breadth and depth of cognitive impairment and reported the most IADL difficulty. Longitudinally, MCI participants showed faster IADL decline than CN participants (multidomain-amnestic MCI > single domain-amnestic MCI > nonamnestic MCI). Conclusion: NP criteria identified a proportion of MCI and reversion rate within ACTIVE that is consistent with prior studies involving community-dwelling samples. The pattern of everyday functioning change suggests that being classified as MCI, particularly amnestic MCI, is predictive of future loss of independence. Future work will apply these classifications in ACTIVE to better understand the relationships between MCI and health, social, and cognitive intervention-related factors. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Incident Instrumental Activities of Daily Living Difficulty in Older Adults: Which Comes First? Findings From the Advanced Cognitive Training for Independent and Vital Elderly Study

Introduction: Instrumental activities of daily living (IADLs) are complex daily tasks important for independent living. Many older adults experience difficulty with IADLs as their physical and/or cognitive function begins to decline. However, it is unknown in what order IADLs become difficult. Methods: Participants from the Advanced Cognitive Training for Independent and Vital Elderly (ACTIVE) study who were free of IADL difficulty at baseline (N = 1,277) were followed up to 10 years until first reported IADL difficulty. A total of 19 IADL tasks were grouped into seven task categories. A discrete-time multiple-event process survival mixture model (MEPSUM) was used to generate hazard estimates of incident IADL difficulty in seven groups from ages 65 to 80. Hazard estimates were compared in the three intervention groups (memory, inductive reasoning, and speed of information processing) vs. the no-contact control group. Results: A total of 887 (69.5%) participants reported incident difficulty in at least one IADL task category. Compared to individuals who remained free of IADL difficulty, those who reported incident difficulty were more likely to be older, female, and have lower Short Form 36 general health scores. The IADL task categories to first become difficult were housework, managing health care, and phone use. There were no differences by intervention group in the hazard estimates of incident IADL difficulty. Conclusion: Managing health care and phone use are more cognitively demanding IADLs, and individuals who experience difficulty in these tasks first may be more likely to experience cognitive decline. Recognizing early difficulty in managing health care may allow for implementation of compensation strategies to minimize unintentional medication misuse, increased adverse medical events, and unnecessary hospitalization. Training of a specific cognitive domain may not influence ordering of IADL difficulty because IADL tasks require proficiency in, and integration of, multiple cognitive domains.

Cohort differences in cognitive aging: The role of perceived work environment

Studies of historical and societal influences on cognitive aging generally document that later-born cohorts outperform earlier-born cohorts on tests of fluid cognitive performance. It is often noted how advances in educational attainment in childhood and adolescence may contribute to these historical improvements in cognitive aging. Less is known about the role of work environment in adulthood. Over the last century, work demands and characteristics have been changing profoundly, particularly with shifts from a manufacturing to a service and technical economy. In this article, we used data from the Seattle Longitudinal Study to compare age-related trajectories of cognitive change in five primary mental abilities between earlier-born (1901-1938) and later-born cohorts (1939-1966). Cohorts were matched on an observation-by-observation basis using age and retest, and analyses controlled for participants' gender and number of data points provided. We found that (a) later-born cohorts had higher levels of performance on most cognitive tasks and exhibited less age-related declines in word fluency; (b) later-born cohorts had more enriched perceived work environments, as indicated by higher levels of worker control and innovation, with no cohort differences in work autonomy; (c) these experiences were associated with higher levels of cognitive performance at age 55 years; (d) the effects of perceived work environment were independent of education; and (e) the effects of perceived work environment were consistent across cohorts. The findings suggest that perceived work environment is associated with cognitive functioning independently of education and invariably across historical time. We discuss potential mechanisms underlying these associations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

COHORT DIFFERENCES IN COGNITIVE AGING: THE ROLE OF PERCEIVED WORK ENVIRONMENT

Studies of historical change on cognitive aging generally document that later-born cohorts outperform earlier-born cohorts on tests of fluid cognitive performance. It is often noted how advances in educational attainment contribute to this finding. Over the last century, work demands and characteristics have changed profoundly, with shifts from a manufacturing to service and technical economy. We used data from the Seattle Longitudinal Study to compare trajectories of cognitive change between earlier-born (1901-1938) and later-born cohorts (1939-1966). Our findings show that (a) later-born cohorts had higher levels of performance on most cognitive tasks and exhibited less decline in word fluency, (b) had more enriched perceived work environment as indicated by higher levels of worker control and innovation, with no cohort differences in work autonomy (c) these experiences were associated with higher levels of cognitive performance independent of education and consistently across cohorts. We discuss potential mechanisms underlying these associations.

Leptomeninges-Derived Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells and Directly Converted Neurons From Autopsy Cases With Varying Neuropathologic Backgrounds

Patient-specific stem cell technology from skin and other biopsy sources has transformed in vitro models of neurodegenerative disease, permitting interrogation of the effects of complex human genetics on neurotoxicity. However, the neuropathologic changes that underlie cognitive and behavioral phenotypes can only be determined at autopsy. To better correlate the biology of derived neurons with age-related and neurodegenerative changes, we generated leptomeningeal cell lines from well-characterized research subjects that have undergone comprehensive postmortem neuropathologic examinations. In a series of proof of principle experiments, we reprogrammed autopsy leptomeningeal cell lines to human-induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) and differentiated these into neurons. We show that leptomeningeal-derived hiPSC lines can be generated from fresh and frozen leptomeninges, are pluripotent, and retain the karyotype of the starting cell population. Additionally, neurons differentiated from these hiPSCs are functional and produce measurable Alzheimer disease-relevant analytes (Aβ and Tau). Finally, we used direct conversion protocols to transdifferentiate leptomeningeal cells to neurons. These resources allow the generation of in vitro models to test mechanistic hypotheses as well as diagnostic and therapeutic strategies in association with neuropathology, clinical and cognitive data, and biomarker studies, aiding in the study of late-onset Alzheimer disease and other age-related neurodegenerative diseases.

Is subjective memory specific for memory performance or general across cognitive domains? Findings from the Seattle Longitudinal Study

A growing body of research has examined whether people's judgments of their own memory functioning accurately reflect their memory performance at cross-section and over time. Relatively less is known about whether these judgments are specifically based on memory performance, or reflect general cognitive change. The aim of the present study was to examine longitudinal associations of subjective memory with performance in tests of episodic memory and a wide range of other cognitive tests, including the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised (WAIS-R) Block Design, Comprehension, Digit Span, Digit Symbol, and Vocabulary subtests. We applied latent growth curve models to five occasions over up to 16 years of neuropsychological assessments from 956 participants of the Seattle Longitudinal Study (SLS; 57% women; age at baseline: M = 65.1, SD = 11.4, 38 - 96 years). Results revealed that lower self-reported Frequency of Forgetting was significantly associated with better performance in all cognitive domains at baseline. The baseline correlation of Frequency of Forgetting with memory performance was stronger than its correlations with performance in other cognitive tests. Furthermore, additional analyses with baseline data showed that a latent memory performance factor reliably predicted Frequency of Forgetting after controlling for a general cognitive factor. Over time, steeper increases in Frequency of Forgetting were associated with steeper declines in tests of memory performance and in the Block Design and Digit Symbol subtests. Taken together, these findings suggest that although self-reported Frequency of Forgetting reflects performance in a broad range of other cognitive domains, it also shows some specificity for memory performance. (PsycINFO Database Record

APOEε4 Genotype and Hypertension Modify 8-year Cortical Thinning: Five Occasion Evidence from the Seattle Longitudinal Study

We investigated individual differences in longitudinal trajectories of brain aging in cognitively normal healthy adults from the Seattle Longitudinal Study covering 8 years of longitudinal change (across 5 occasions) in cortical thickness in 249 midlife and older adults (52-95 years old). We aimed to understand true brain change; examine the influence of salient risk factors that modify an individual's rate of cortical thinning; and compare cross-sectional age-related differences in cortical thickness to longitudinal within-person cortical thinning. We used Multivariate Multilevel Modeling to simultaneously model dependencies among 5 lobar composites (Frontal, Parietal, Temporal, Occipital, and Cingulate [CING]) and account for the longitudinal nature of the data. Results indicate (1) all 5 lobar composites significantly atrophied across 8 years, showing nonlinear longitudinal rate of cortical thinning decelerated over time, (2) longitudinal thinning was significantly altered by hypertension and Apolipoprotein-E ε4 (APOEε4), varying by location: Frontal and CING thinned more rapidly in APOEε4 carriers. Notably, thinning of parietal and occipital cortex showed synergistic effect of combined risk factors, where individuals who were both APOEε4 carriers and hypertensive had significantly greater 8-year thinning than those with either risk factor alone or neither risk factor, (3) longitudinal thinning was 3 times greater than cross-sectional estimates of age-related differences in thickness in parietal and occipital cortices.

Personality Predicts Mortality Risk: An Integrative Data Analysis of 15 International Longitudinal Studies

This study examined the Big Five personality traits as predictors of mortality risk, and smoking as a mediator of that association. Replication was built into the fabric of our design: we used a Coordinated Analysis with 15 international datasets, representing 44,094 participants. We found that high neuroticism and low conscientiousness, extraversion, and agreeableness were consistent predictors of mortality across studies. Smoking had a small mediating effect for neuroticism. Country and baseline age explained variation in effects: studies with older baseline age showed a pattern of protective effects (HR<1.00) for openness, and U.S. studies showed a pattern of protective effects for extraversion. This study demonstrated coordinated analysis as a powerful approach to enhance replicability and reproducibility, especially for aging-related longitudinal research.

Control beliefs and cognition over a 10-year period: Findings from the ACTIVE trial

We examined two facets of control beliefs and cognition over 10 years within the Advanced Cognitive Training for Independent and Vital Elderly study. Intellectual Self-Efficacy decreased (β = -0.32 units/year; SE = 0.03) and Concern About Intellectual Aging increased (β = 0.26 units/year; SE = 0.02) over time, with older age being the only predictor of increases in Concern About Intellectual Aging. Although baseline cognitive performance was related to control beliefs over time, the reverse was not supported. Findings were not altered by participation in the ACTIVE training programs, suggesting the need for including intervention components that lead to long-term maintenance or improvements in such beliefs. (PsycINFO Database Record

Age and Distance to Death in the Seattle Longitudinal Study

A series of hierarchical regression models was used to determine if time to death was a significant independent variable for level and seven-year change in intellectual performance for 1,214 community-dwelling adults. Distance to death explained a significant amount of the variance of intellectual performance at individuals’last measurement but not of the decline in performance after controlling for age, education, gender, and survivorship. The inclusion of time to death improved the proportion of unique variance explained by about 1% to 3% and between 4% and 10.4% of the total variance explained. Decedents had lower levels of verbal meaning, spatial ability, reasoning ability, and psychomotor speed at last measurements and greater amounts of seven-year decline on verbal meaning and psychomotor speed. The inclusion of distance to death may help improve the explanation of variability in performance associated with increased age.

Cognitive Function and Medication Usage in Older Adults

Research is presented from three different cognitive aging laboratories that examines the relationship between cognitive function, age, and the ability to adhere to medication regimens. The first section focuses on the effectiveness of complete, explicit instructions that emphasize the importance of organization of medication information on adherence behaviors for both younger and older adults. The second section examines the role of literal versus inferential medication information in normal elderly and in Alzheimer's patients. This research demonstrates that traditional measures of cognitive functioning are correlated with the comprehension of medication information and medication adherence. Finally, the third section presents an overview of research issues m adherence, including the relative effectiveness of two adherence measurement techniques, as well as a discussion of the effects of illness beliefs on adherence and evidence that adherence is not a global behavior but may vary within the individual as a function of certain medications. Directions for future research are suggested.

Enhancing the Cognitive Vitality of Older Adults

Aging is associated with decline in a multitude of cognitive processes and brain functions. However, a growing body of literature suggests that age-related decline in cognition can sometimes be reduced through experience, cognitive training, and other interventions such as fitness training. Research on cognitive training and expertise has suggested that age-related cognitive sparing is often quite narrow, being observed only on tasks and skills similar to those on which individuals have been trained. Furthermore, training and expertise benefits are often realized only after extensive practice with specific training strategies. Like cognitive training, fitness training has narrow effects on cognitive processes, but in the case of fitness training, the most substantial effects are observed for executive-control processes.

External locus of control contributes to racial disparities in memory and reasoning training gains in ACTIVE

Racial disparities in cognitive outcomes may be partly explained by differences in locus of control. African Americans report more external locus of control than non-Hispanic Whites, and external locus of control is associated with poorer health and cognition. The aims of this study were to compare cognitive training gains between African American and non-Hispanic White participants in the Advanced Cognitive Training for Independent and Vital Elderly (ACTIVE) study and determine whether racial differences in training gains are mediated by locus of control. The sample comprised 2,062 (26% African American) adults aged 65 and older who participated in memory, reasoning, or speed training. Latent growth curve models evaluated predictors of 10-year cognitive trajectories separately by training group. Multiple group modeling examined associations between training gains and locus of control across racial groups. Compared to non-Hispanic Whites, African Americans evidenced less improvement in memory and reasoning performance after training. These effects were partially mediated by locus of control, controlling for age, sex, education, health, depression, testing site, and initial cognitive ability. African Americans reported more external locus of control, which was associated with smaller training gains. External locus of control also had a stronger negative association with reasoning training gain for African Americans than for Whites. No racial difference in training gain was identified for speed training. Future intervention research with African Americans should test whether explicitly targeting external locus of control leads to greater cognitive improvement following cognitive training.