Towards sustainable and humane dairy farming: A low-cost electrochemical sensor for on-site diagnosis of milk fever

Milk fever is a metabolic disorder that predominantly affects dairy animals during the periparturient period and within four weeks of calving. Milk fever is primarily attributed to a decrease in the animal's serum Ca2+ levels. Clinical milk fever occurs when Ca2+ concentration drops below 1.5 mM (6 mg/dL). Without prompt intervention, clinical milk fever leads to noticeable physical symptoms and health complications including coma and fatality. Subclinical milk fever is characterized by Ca2+ levels between 1.5 and 2.12 mM (6-8.48 mg/dL). Approximately 50% of multiparous dairy cows suffer from subclinical milk fever during the transition to lactation. The economic impact of milk fever, both direct and indirect, is substantial, posing challenges for farmers. To address this issue, we developed a low-cost electrochemical sensor that can measure bovine serum calcium levels on-site, providing an opportunity for early detection of subclinical and clinical milk fever and early intervention. This calcium sensor is a scalable solid contact ion sensing platform that incorporates a polymeric calcium-selective membrane and ionic liquid-based reference membrane into laser-induced graphene (LIG) electrodes. Our sensing platform demonstrates a sensitivity close to the theoretical Nernstian value (29.6 mV/dec) with a limit of detection of 15.6 μM and selectivity against the species in bovine serum. Moreover, our sensor can detect Ca2+ in bovine serum with 91% recovery.

Slaughter condemnation in bovine due to parasitic lesions and their economic impact in Federal Inspection System establishments in Brazil and in State inspection System in Rio Grande do Sul State

Slaughter condemnations are important sources of information on cattle health. The incidence of bovine parasitic diseases is still very high in Brazil. These diseases, in addition to causing harm to the animals health, are neglected zoonotic diseases in several parts of world. The study analysed not only the Carcass losses, but also the economic damage resulting from slaughter condemnations due to parasitic causes. Cattle slaughter data from the Brazilian Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Supply (MAPA), over the period of 2012 to 2015 and data from the Secretary of Livestock and Irrigation of the state of Rio Grande do Sul (SEAPI-RS) were analyzed between 2014 and 2018.The number of organs and carcasses condemned was multiplied by the respective values (in Brazilian Real) obtained from slaughterhouses and subsequently converted into dollars. Brazilian analysis in SIF (Federal Inspection System) establishments showed that more than 1.2 million organs (3,884,505 kg) and 20,000 carcasses (4,547,718 kg) were condemned only due to parasitic causes during post-mortem inspection. In Rio Grande do Sul, in state inspection establishments, more than 1.7 million organs (8,210,559 kg) and 5,000 carcasses (1,243,200 kg) were condemned. These data are alarming and support the need for public policies to control these parasitic diseases.

Cost of retained fetal membranes for dairy herds in the United States

OBJECTIVE To estimate the cost of a case of retained fetal membranes (RFM) for dairy herds in the United States. DESIGN Deterministic computer-based spreadsheet analysis. SAMPLE Inputs from published studies and reports. PROCEDURES Economic losses attributable to RFM were direct (reduction in milk yield and longer interval until pregnancy) and indirect (increased risk of developing clinical disease and increased culling risk). Cost attributable to milk loss was calculated as the mean marginal loss of milk production for cows with RFM and cows with RFM complicated by metritis. Cost of the increased risk of developing clinical disease because of RFM was a product of the cost of each clinical disease and the risk of each clinical disease attributable to RFM. Cost attributable to reduced reproductive performance was a function of a longer interval until pregnancy, whereas cost for increased culling attributable to RFM was associated with the market value of cull cows and replacement heifers as well as herd turnover rate. RESULTS Cost of a case of RFM determined by use of default inputs was $386 (reduction in milk yield, $287; increased time until pregnancy, $73; increased disease risk, $25; and increased culling risk, $1). Sensitivity analysis revealed that milk and feed prices were the most influential inputs. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Cost of a case of RFM, including uncomplicated cases, was substantial and comparable to that for other common clinical diseases during the transition period. Preventive measures during the nonlactating period should be considered to minimize the incidence of RFM.

Socio-economic burden of parasitic infections in yaks from 1984 to 2017 on Qinghai Tibetan Plateau of China-A review

Yak is an important animal for the Tibetans at Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau of China. The burden of parasitic diseases has been a major threat to the health of yaks at this region presenting a considerable socio-economic losses and impact to yak production and local nomads. Keeping in view, we collected the published papers from 1984 to 2017 on major parasitic infections in yaks by electronic literature search from five databases including CNKI, Google, PubMed, Science Direct and Web of Science. The prevalence of Eimeria, Babesia, Theileria, Hypodermosis, Cystic echinococcosis, Alveolar echinococcosis, Toxoplasma gondii, Neospora caninum, Cryptosporidium, Giardia duodenalis, Enterocytozoon bieneusi, Toxocara vitulorum, and Fascioliasis infection in yaks was found to be 48.02%, 13.06%, 36.11%, 59.85%, 16.93%, 0.99%, 20.50%, 5.14%, 10.00%, 3.68%, 4.07%, 22.23% and 28.7% respectively. Data presented are contemplated to enhance our current understanding on the major parasitic diseases of yaks at Qinghai Tibetan plateau, China. The main aim of this effort is to ameliorate the effects of the parasitic burden in this specie; so that, the attempts are made to minimize the incidence of these infections in future to raise the socio-economic levels of local community.

Epidemiology and economic impact of bovine cysticercosis and taeniosis caused by Taenia saginata in northeastern Spain (Catalonia)

BACKGROUND

In Catalonia (north-eastern Spain), Taenia saginata has been described in cattle but its occurrence in humans is unclear. Moreover, whether cattle acquired the infection in Catalonia or outside Catalonia and its economic impact have not been investigated. This study aimed to estimate the prevalence and spatial distribution of bovine cysticercosis in Catalonia (2008-2015), and the burden from T. saginata upon the animal and human sectors in Catalonia (2013-2015).

METHODS

Data on cattle diagnosed with cysticercosis at meat inspection were collected and analysed. Cattle movement history was used to identify the most likely place of bovine cysticercosis infection and to investigate its spatial distribution. Data on taeniosis treatment (niclosamide and praziquantel) costs and their supply in Catalonia as well as data on patients attending primary care with diagnosis of taeniosis were collected. The financial impact associated with T. saginata due to carcasses condemned and frozen, meat inspection and human taeniosis was estimated.

RESULTS

During 2008-2015, between 18 and 107 cattle were found positive for cysticercosis each year (prevalence at slaughter of 0.010%). Movement history was available for 44% of the infected cattle and in 53% of them Catalonia was identified as the place where the infection was acquired with highest probability. Two significant bovine cysticercosis clusters were detected. The number of patients diagnosed with taeniosis in primary care during the period 2013-2016 was 41-63/year. The overall economic impact of T. saginata (2013-2015) amounted to 154,903 €/year (95% CI: 113,075-196,762). Meat inspection accounted for 81.9% (95% CI: 75.8-86.2%) of the costs, followed by costs due to carcass condemnation and freezing (9.4%; 95% CI: 6.9-12.8%), and taeniosis-associated costs (8.7%; 95% CI: 6.7-11.6%). Costs due to freezing and condemnation of carcasses reached 19,442 €/year (95% CI: 17,528-21,391) (509 €/lightly infected carcass and 1,140 €/heavily infected carcass). Taeniosis-associated costs were estimated at 12,848.5 €/year (237 €/patient).

CONCLUSIONS

The public health risk of T. saginata in the area seems to be low. The economic impact due to T. saginata was mainly attributed to meat inspection. The cost due to carcass condemnation and freezing was limited compared to the revenue of the beef sector. Developing and implementing risk-based surveillance is needed to lower the costs of meat inspection. Considering cattle movements might be useful in the development of such a strategy.

A modelling framework based on MDP to coordinate farmers' disease control decisions at a regional scale

The effectiveness of infectious disease control depends on the ability of health managers to act in a coordinated way. However, with regards to non-notifiable animal diseases, farmers individually decide whether or not to implement control measures, leading to positive and negative externalities for connected farms and possibly impairing disease control at a regional scale. Our objective was to facilitate the identification of optimal incentive schemes at a collective level, adaptive to the epidemiological situation, and minimizing the economic costs due to a disease and its control. We proposed a modelling framework based on Markov Decision Processes (MDP) to identify effective strategies to control PorcineReproductive andRespiratorySyndrome (PRRS), a worldwide endemicinfectiousdisease thatsignificantly impactspig farmproductivity. Using a stochastic discrete-time compartmental model representing PRRS virus spread and control within a group of pig herds, we defined the associated MDP. Using a decision-tree framework, we translated the optimal policy into a limited number of rules providing actions to be performed per 6-month time-step according to the observed system state. We evaluated the effect of varying costs and transition probabilities on optimal policy and epidemiological results. We finally identifiedan adaptive policy that gave the best net financial benefit. The proposed framework is a tool for decision support as it allows decision-makers to identify the optimal policy and to assess its robustness to variations in the values of parameters representing an impact of incentives on farmers' decisions.

A framework for estimating society's economic welfare following the introduction of an animal disease: The case of Johne's disease

Animal diseases are global issues affecting the productivity and financial profitability of affected farms. Johne’s disease is distributed on farms worldwide and is an endemic contagious bacterial infection in ruminants caused by Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis. In cattle, the clinical disease manifests itself as chronic enteritis resulting in reduced production, weight loss, and eventually death. Johne’s disease is prevalent in the UK, including Scotland. Direct costs and losses associated with Johne’s disease have been estimated in previous research, confirming an important economic impact of the disease in UK herds. Despite this, the distributional impact of Johne’s disease among milk consumers and producers in Scotland has not been estimated. In this paper, we evaluate the change in society’s economic welfare, namely to dairy producers (i.e. infected and uninfected herds) and milk consumers in Scotland induced by the introduction of Johne’s disease in the national Scottish dairy herd. At the national-level, we conclude that the economic burden falls mainly on producers of infected herds and, to a lesser extent, milk consumers, while producers of uninfected herds benefit from the presence of Johne’s. An infected producer’s loss per cow is approximately two times larger in magnitude than that of an uninfected producer’s gain. Such economic welfare estimates are an important comparison of the relative costs of national herd prevalence and the wider economic welfare implications for both producers and consumers. This is particularly important from a policy, public good, cost sharing, and human health perspective. The economic welfare framework presented in this paper can be applied to other diseases to examine the relative burden of society’s economic welfare of alternative livestock disease scenarios. In addition, the sensitivity analysis evaluates uncertainty in economic welfare given limited data and uncertainty in the national herd prevalence, and other input parameters, associated with Johne’s disease in Scotland. Therefore, until the prevalence of Johne’s is better understood, the full economic cost to Scottish dairy herds remains uncertain but in the meantime the sensitivity analysis evaluates the robustness of economic welfare to such uncertainties.

Cost-benefit analysis of intervention policies for prevention and control of brucellosis in India

Background

Brucellosis is endemic in the bovine population in India and causes a loss of US$ 3·4 billion to the livestock industry besides having a significant human health impact.

Methods

We developed a stochastic simulation model to estimate the impact of three alternative vaccination strategies on the prevalence of Brucella infection in the bovine populations in India for the next two decades: (a) annual mass vaccination only for the replacement calves and (b) vaccination of both the adult and young population at the beginning of the program followed by an annual vaccination of the replacement calves and, (c) annual mass vaccination of replacements for a decade followed by a decade of a test and slaughter strategy.

Findings

For all interventions, our results indicate that the prevalence of Brucella infection will drop below 2% in cattle and, below 3% in buffalo after 20 years of the implementation of a disease control program. For cattle, the Net Present Value (NPV) was found to be US $ 4·16 billion for intervention (a), US $ 8·31 billion for intervention (b) and, US $ 4·26 for intervention (c). For buffalo, the corresponding NPVs were US $ 8·77 billion, US $ 13·42 and, US $ 7·66, respectively. The benefit cost ratio (BCR) for the first, second and the third intervention for cattle were 7·98, 10·62 and, 3·16, respectively. Corresponding BCR estimates for buffalo were 17·81, 21·27 and, 3·79, respectively.

Conclusion

These results suggest that all interventions will be cost-effective with the intervention (b), i.e. the vaccination of replacements with mass vaccination at the beginning of the program, being the most cost-effective choice. Further, sensitivity analysis revealed that all interventions will be cost-effective even at the 50% of the current prevalence estimates. The results advocate for the implementation of a disease control program for brucellosis in India.

Brucellosis is an endemic zoonosis in India and recent studies demonstrate that the disease results in a median loss of US$ 3.43 billion in livestock populations. Lack of resources to compensate farmers and a ban on cow slaughter means that test and slaughter policy to control brucellosis cannot be implemented in India. This is the first systematic analysis of a brucellosis control program interventions for bovine brucellosis in India. The cost-benefit analysis was successfully conducted and indicated benefits of implementing the intervention policies. For each intervention, our results indicate that the prevalence of Brucella infection will drop below 2% in cattle after 20 years of the implementation of disease control program although some strategies were better than others. The expected net present value (NPV) was found to range from US $ 4·16 to $ 8·31 billion for cattle and from $ 7·66 to $ 13·42 billion in buffalo for the three strategies investigated. The benefit cost ratio (BCR) ranged from 3·16 to 10·62 for cattle and from 3·79 to 21·27 for buffalo. The results advocate for the implementation of a disease control program and will help development of an official health policy for the control of brucellosis in India.

Theoretical value of pre-trade testing for Salmonella in Swedish cattle herds

The Swedish Salmonella control programme includes mandatory action if Salmonella is detected in a herd. The aim of this study was to assess the relative value of different strategies for pre-movement testing of cattle. Three fictitious herds were included: dairy, beef and specialised calf-fattening. The yearly risks of introducing Salmonella with and without individual serological or bulk milk testing were assessed as well as the effects of sourcing animals from low-prevalence areas or reducing the number of source herds. The initial risk was highest for the calf-fattening herd and lowest for the beef herd. For the beef and dairy herds, the yearly risk of Salmonella introduction was reduced by about 75% with individual testing. Sourcing animals from low-prevalence areas reduced the risk by >99%. For the calf-fattening herd, the yearly risk was reduced by almost 50% by individual testing or sourcing animals from a maximum of five herds. The method was useful for illustrating effects of risk mitigation when introducing animals into a herd. Sourcing animals from low-risk areas (or herds) is more effective than single testing of individual animals or bulk milk. A comprehensive approach to reduce the risk of introducing Salmonella from source herds is justified.

Economic assessment of an emerging disease: the case of Schmallenberg virus in France

Schmallenberg virus (SBV) was first detected in 2011 in Germany and then in France in 2012. This study simulates the production of different ruminant systems in France and estimates, through partial budget analyses, the economic cost of SBV at the farm level, under two disease scenarios (a high-impact and low-impact scenario). A partial budget is used to evaluate the financial effect of incremental changes, and includes only resources or production that will be changed. In the high-impact scenario, the estimated impact of SBV ranged from €23 to €43 per cow per year and €19 to €37 per ewe per year. In the low-impact scenario, it was approximately half (for cows) or one-third (for ewes) of this amount. These financial impacts represent 0.6% to 63% of the gross margin, depending on the chosen scenario and the livestock system being considered. The impacts of SBV come mainly from: the extra costs from purchasing and raising replacement heifers and losses in milk production (dairy cows); the losses in calf or lamb production (beef systems and meat sheep); and the losses in milk production and from unsold replacement lambs (dairy sheep). The use of integrated production and economic models enabled the authors to estimate the cost of SBV and to tackle the problem of scarce data, which is a difficulty for most emerging diseases, by their very nature. It also allowed the authors to develop an accurate disease impact assessment for several production systems, over a short time span. Extrapolating from this economic assessment to predict the scenario in coming years depends on the immunity period of the disease and the length of the production cycles.

A review on epidemiology, global prevalence and economical losses of fasciolosis in ruminants

Fasciolosis is an important plant borne trematode zoonosis in ruminants caused by the Fasciola hepatica and Fasciola gigentica, It is classified as a neglected tropical disease and found in more than 50 countries especially where sheep and cattle are reared. Fasciolosis is a serious animal health problems in many rural and urban areas of world, causing significant financial losses due to decrease in production and viscera condemnation in animals. Accurate diagnosis of fasciolosis is always remained a challenging task for the field practitioners. There is no comprehensive summary on the occurrence and distribution of the infection at international level. Therefore, we intended to provide a complete overview on the prevalence and epidemiology of fasciolosis in farm animals from a global prospective. It includes to map the global distribution of fasciolosis in different areas of the world to identify the endemic regions which may be a source of potential disease outbreak. The financial liability related to fasciolosis on the livestock production has also been addressed. For this purpose, the published data during 2000-2015 (15 years) on fasciolosis was reviewed and collected by electronic literature search of four databases including Google, PubMed, Science Direct, and Web of Science. Data presented are contemplated to enhance our current understanding of the parasite's geographical distribution, host range, and economic losses. Information provided would be useful for the application of more effective control strategies against fasciolosis in different geo-economics regions of the world.

Genetic parameters for both a liver damage phenotype caused by and antibody response to phenotype in dairy and beef cattle

is a helminth parasite of economic importance to the global cattle industry, with documented high international herd prevalence. The objective of the present study was to generate the first published genetic parameter estimates for liver damage caused by as well as antibody response to in cattle. Abattoir data on the presence of live , or -damaged livers, were available between the years 2012 and 2015, inclusive. A second data set was available on cows from 68 selected dairy herds with a blood ELISA test for antibody response to in autumn 2015. Animals were identified as exposed by using herd mate phenotype, and only exposed animals were retained for analysis. The abattoir data set consisted of 20,481 dairy cows and 75,041 young dairy and beef animals, whereas the study herd data set consisted of 6,912 dairy cows. (Co)variance components for phenotypes in both data sets were estimated using animal linear mixed models. Fixed effects included in the model for both data sets were contemporary group, heterosis coefficient, recombination loss coefficient, parity, age relative to parity/age group, and stage of lactation. An additional fixed effect of abattoir by date of slaughter was included in the model for the analysis of the abattoir data. Direct additive genetic effects and a residual effect were included as random effects for all analyses. After data edits, the prevalence of liver damage caused by in cows and young cattle was 47% and 20%, respectively. The prevalence of a positive antibody response to in cows from the study herd data was 36% after data edits. The heritability of as a binary trait for dairy cows in abattoir data and study herd data was 0.03 ± 0.01 and 0.09 ± 0.02, respectively; heritability in young cattle was 0.01 ± 0.005. The additive genetic SD of as a binary trait was 0.069 and 0.050 for cows and young cattle from the abattoir data, respectively, and 0.112 from the study herd cows. The genetic correlation between liver damage caused by in young cattle and cows from the abattoir data was 0.94 ± 0.312 and the genetic correlation between liver damage caused by in cows and positive antibody response to in cows in the study herd data was 0.37 ± 0.283.

Pathological findings of condemned bovine liver specimens and associated economic loss at Nyabugogo abattoir, Kigali, Rwanda

There are no published abattoir bovine hepatic lesion prevalence studies in cattle in Rwanda. This study estimated that 12.3% of the livers (n=4751) examined at Nyabugogo slaughterhouse in Kigali were condemned. Condemnation prejudiced the nation of 3492.00kg of meat with attendant economic losses of US$8932.40 during the study period. Risk factors for these lesions were also assessed. Male and female animals from 11 districts were used in this study. Hepatic lesions were higher in females (14.6%; n=1494) than in males (11.1%; n=3257). About 78.7% of the condemnations were due to fascioliasis, followed by abscesses (5.7%), hepatitis (5.3%), cirrhosis (4%) and other lesions (6.3%). Female animal livers showed more fascioliasis and abscesses (82.2% and 9.5%) than male animal livers (73.3% and 3.3%). The highest rate of condemnation was observed from Kayonza (40.2%; n=413) and the least was from Gakenke district (0.9%; n=1031). Cattle from the Eastern Province showed significantly (P<0.05) higher prevalence of condemnations (26.8%) than the rest of the provinces. Liver specimens of animals below 3 years and above 6 years of age had a significantly higher (P<0.05) condemnation rate (14.4%) (n=3000 and n=769) than the 3-6year age-group at 4.1% (n=982). We conclude that fascioliasis was responsible for a significant proportion of the liver condemnations at Nyabugogo slaughterhouse. Being a zoonosis, we recommend an epidemio-surveillance, implementation of control measures and anthelmintic resistance investigation for fascioliasis in Rwanda.

BILL E. KUNKLE INTERDISCIPLINARY BEEF SYMPOSIUM: Coping with tall fescue toxicosis: Solutions and realities

Beef cattle consume more tall fescue [ (Schreb.) Darbysh.] than any other perennial cool-season grass in North America. Tall fescue forms a mutualistic relationship with the fungus (Morgan-Jones and W. Cams) C.W. Bacon & Schardl, comb. nov.; these plants are often referred to as endophyte-infected tall fescue. Agronomically, endophyte infection is good; endophyte-infected plants resist biotic and abiotic stresses better than do endophyte-free plants. However, tall fescue plants infected with a common toxic endophyte produce the ergot alkaloids that cause tall fescue toxicosis. Several agronomic practices can eliminate or reduce the effects of tall fescue toxicosis. Renovating tall fescue fields infected with a common toxic endophyte to new cultivars infected with a novel (or nontoxic) endophyte eliminates the problem for that field. Although the cost to renovate currently exceeds US$600/ha, most economic analyses show it to be a good long-term investment, especially on fields with high forage production potential. Less effective, but popular, methods of dealing with tall fescue toxicosis include adding clovers ( spp.) or other forage species to the pastures to dilute the effects of the toxins, avoiding the use of high rates of nitrogen fertilizers, feeding supplements, and rotating cattle to warm-season forages in summer. Also, the alkaloid concentration in forage can be reduced by making it (drying) into hay. Recent research shows that animal tolerance to tall fescue toxicosis is possible, although there is still much to learn about this topic. Tall fescue toxicosis is likely a reality in the beef industry for some time to come. We contend that renovation of the most productive fields to cultivars infected with a novel endophyte coupled with the prospect of using tolerant livestock in scenarios where renovation is not possible will give innovative producers a competitive edge.

Economic value of ionophores and propylene glycol to prevent disease and treat ketosis in Canada

A partial budget model was developed to evaluate the economic value of Rumensin Controlled Release Capsule (CRC) boluses when administered before calving to reduce disease and increase milk production. After accounting for disease incidences in a herd and the percentage by which Rumensin CRC can reduce them, and the increase in milk production attributable to administration of Rumensin CRC, the return on investment (ROI) per lactation was 4:1. Another partial budget model was developed to estimate the economic value of propylene glycol (PG) to treat ketosis when diagnosed by 3 different cow-side tests or when administered to all cows without using any cow-side testing. After accounting for the sensitivity and specificity of each test, ROI per lactation ranged from 2:1 to 4:1. The ROI was 2:1 when no cow-side testing was used. In conclusion, prevention of diseases that occur in the postpartum period and treatment of ketosis after calving yielded a positive ROI that varies based on disease incidence and method of diagnosis.

The cost of a case of subclinical ketosis in Canadian dairy herds

The objective of this study was to develop a model to estimate the cost of a case of subclinical ketosis (SCK) in Canadian dairy herds. Costs were derived from the default inputs, and included increased clinical disease incidence attributable to SCK, $76; longer time to pregnancy, $57; culling and death in early lactation attributable to SCK, $26; milk production loss, $44. Given these figures, the cost of 1 case of SCK was estimated to be $203. Sensitivity analysis showed that the estimated cost of a case of SCK was most sensitive to the herd-level incidence of SCK and the cost of 1 day open. In conclusion, SCK negatively impacts dairy herds and losses are dependent on the herd-level incidence and factors included in the calculation.

The Impact of Farmers' Strategic Behavior on the Spread of Animal Infectious Diseases

One of the main strategies to control the spread of infectious animal diseases is the implementation of movement restrictions. This paper shows a loss in efficiency of the movement restriction policy (MRP) when behavioral responses of farmers are taken into account. Incorporating the strategic behavior of farmers in an epidemiologic model reveals that the MRP can trigger premature animal sales by farms at high risk of becoming infected that significantly reduce the efficacy of the policy. The results are validated in a parameterized network via Monte Carlo simulations and measures to mitigate the loss of efficiency of the MRP are discussed. Financial aid to farmers can be justified by public health concerns, not only for equity. This paper contributes to developing an interdisciplinary analytical framework regarding the expansion of infectious diseases combining economic and epidemiologic dimensions.

Observations on the biology, epidemiology and economic relevance of rumen flukes (Paramphistomidae) in cattle kept in a temperate environment

There is concern about the probable recent introduction, increased prevalence and potential economic impact of rumen fluke infection of United Kingdom cattle. A study of 339 cattle slaughtered in a Scottish red meat abattoir was undertaken with the aims of describing the prevalence and geographical distribution of rumen fluke infection, estimating its effect on production, and evaluating faecal egg counts (FECs) as a tool to diagnose infection in live animals and study the epidemiology of the disease. The overall proportion of cattle consigned to the abattoir from northern United Kingdom with rumen fluke infection in the forestomachs was 0.29. Rumen flukes were distributed predominantly in the cranial sac of the rumen and adjacent to the reticular groove. Overall, a mean of 213 and median of 44 rumen flukes was identified in the forestomachs of rumen fluke-positive cattle. The mean and median FECs of animals were 26.01 and 5.20 eggs per gram (epg), respectively. There was a significant difference between the mean FECs per rumen fluke of 0.08 and 0.13 epg during summer/autumn and winter sampling periods, respectively. The overall correlation between rumen fluke FECs and the number of flukes in the forestomach was high, albeit lower in the summer/autumn than in the winter period. The sensitivities of rumen fluke FECs for the identification of flukes in the forestomach during the summer/autumn and winter sampling periods were 0.65 and 0.85, respectively. These results will aid in the interpretation of rumen fluke FECs when monitoring cattle health and production and studying the parasite's epidemiology in a temperate environment, thereby informing rational, precise and sustainable disease control.

Failure of Passive Immune Transfer in Calves: A Meta-Analysis on the Consequences and Assessment of the Economic Impact

Low colostrum intake at birth results in the failure of passive transfer (FPT) due to the inadequate ingestion of colostral immunoglobulins (Ig). FPT is associated with an increased risk of mortality and decreased health and longevity. Despite the known management practices associated with low FPT, it remains an important issue in the field. Neither a quantitative analysis of FPT consequences nor an assessment of its total cost are available. To address this point, a meta-analysis on the adjusted associations between FPT and its outcomes was first performed. Then, the total costs of FPT in European systems were calculated using a stochastic method with adjusted values as the input parameters. The adjusted risks (and 95% confidence intervals) for mortality, bovine respiratory disease, diarrhoea and overall morbidity in the case of FPT were 2.12 (1.43–3.13), 1.75 (1.50–2.03), 1.51 (1.05–2.17) and 1.91 (1.63–2.24), respectively. The mean (and 95% prediction interval) total costs per calf with FPT were estimated to be €60 (€10–109) and €80 (€20–139) for dairy and beef, respectively. As a result of the double-step stochastic method, the proposed economic estimation constitutes the first estimate available for FPT. The results are presented in a way that facilitates their use in the field and, with limited effort, combines the cost of each contributor to increase the applicability of the economic assessment to the situations farm-advisors may face. The present economic estimates are also an important tool to evaluate the profitability of measures that aim to improve colostrum intake and FPT prevention.

Epidemiology and impact of Fasciola hepatica exposure in high-yielding dairy herds

The liver fluke Fasciola hepatica is a trematode parasite with a worldwide distribution and is the cause of important production losses in the dairy industry. The aim of this observational study was to assess the prevalence of exposure to F. hepatica in a group of high yielding dairy herds, to determine the risk factors and investigate their associations with production and fertility parameters. Bulk milk tank samples from 606 herds that supply a single retailer with liquid milk were tested with an antibody ELISA for F. hepatica. Multivariable linear regression was used to investigate the effect of farm management and environmental risk factors on F. hepatica exposure. Higher rainfall, grazing boggy pasture, presence of beef cattle on farm, access to a stream or pond and smaller herd size were associated with an increased risk of exposure. Univariable regression was used to look for associations between fluke exposure and production-related variables including milk yield, composition, somatic cell count and calving index. Although causation cannot be assumed, a significant (p<0.001) negative association was seen between F. hepatica exposure and estimated milk yield at the herd level, representing a 15% decrease in yield for an increase in F. hepatica exposure from the 25th to the 75th percentile. This remained significant when fertility, farm management and environmental factors were controlled for. No associations were found between F. hepatica exposure and any of the other production, disease or fertility variables.

[Cost-effectiveness evaluation on comprehensive control measures carrying out in schistosomiasis endemic areas with regard to different layers of administrative villages stratified by infection situation of human and domestic animals. II Correlation analysis of costs and inputs with changes of schistosomiasis endemic situation in inner embankment of marshland and lake regions from 2006 to 2013]

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the correlations between inputs and costs and endemic situation of schistosomiasis in inner embankment, so as tb provide the references for the strategy optimization of schistosomiasis control.

METHODS

Jiangling County was selected as the study field. The correlatibn and regression analyses were applied to analyze the endemic situation of schistosomiasis in Jiangling County from 2006 to 2013. The methods of two-stages least squares and path analysis were applied to analyze the impacts between costs and inputs and endemic situation of schistosomiasis.

RESULTS

The adjusted infection rate of population, number of bovines and Oncomelania hupensis snail areas reduced by 77.42%, 76.34% and 19.43%, respectively in Jiangling County from 2006 to 2013. The correlations between the infection rate of snails and the population positive rates of blood and fecal exams, and the infection rate of bovines were significant (all P < 0.05); and there was a significant linear regression between the infection rates of snails and bovines (P < 0.05). There were statistically significant regressions between inputs at different levels and the population positive rates of blood and fecal exams, and the infection rates of bovines and snails, as well as between the costs and the population positive rate of fecal exams and the infection rates of bovines and snails (all P < 0.05), whereas there was no statistically significant regression between the costs and the population positive rate by blood exams (P > 0.05). The inputs at county level had an impact on the population positive rate of blood exams; the costs of comprehensive treatment had an impact on the population positive rate of fecal exams; the costs of human labor and measures for exams and treatments had an impact on the infeiction rate of bovines; the inputs at national level and the costs of measures for exams and treatments had an impact on the infection rate of snails (all P < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

The inputs and costs of schistosomiasis control were related to the epidemic situation of schistosomiasis in Jiangling County from 2006 to 2013; therefore, it is necessary to develop a comprehensive surveillance system as substitute for the current indexes on schistosomiasis control.

Cystic echinococcosis in the Province of Álava, North Spain: the monetary burden of a disease no longer under surveillance

Cystic echinococcosis (CE) is endemic in Spain but has been considered non-endemic in the province of Álava, Northern Spain, since 1997. However, Álava is surrounded by autonomous regions with some of the highest CE prevalence proportions in the nation, casting doubts about the current classification. The purpose of this study is to estimate the frequency of CE in humans and animals and to use this data to determine the societal cost incurred due to CE in the Álava population in 2005. We have identified epidemiological and clinical data from surveillance and hospital records, prevalence data in intermediate (sheep and cattle) host species from abattoir records, and economical data from national and regional official institutions. Direct costs (diagnosis, treatment, medical care in humans and condemnation of offal in livestock species) and indirect costs (productivity losses in humans and reduction in growth, fecundity and milk production in livestock) were modelled using the Latin hypercube method under five different scenarios reflecting different assumptions regarding the prevalence of asymptomatic cases and associated productivity losses in humans. A total of 13 human CE cases were reported in 2005. The median total cost (95% credible interval) of CE in humans and animals in Álava in 2005 was estimated to range between €61,864 (95%CI%: €47,304-€76,590) and €360,466 (95%CI: €76,424-€752,469), with human-associated losses ranging from 57% to 93% of the total losses, depending on the scenario used. Our data provide evidence that CE is still very well present in Álava and incurs important cost to the province every year. We expect this information to prove valuable for public health agencies and policy-makers, as it seems advisable to reinstate appropriate surveillance and monitoring systems and to implement effective control measures that avoid the spread and recrudescence of the disease.

Caprine besnoitiosis: an emerging threat and its relationship to some other infections of ungulates by Besnoitia species

Caprine besnoitiosis, caused by the cyst-forming protozoal apicomplexan Besnoitia caprae appears to be endemic in Kenya, Nigeria and Iran, but has yet to be detected in other parts of the world. The infection causes an important parasitic disease of goats in affected developing countries. Bovine besnoitiosis, is a widespread disease of cattle in Africa, Asia (but not Iran) and southern Europe. Recent epidemiological data confirm that the incidence and geographical range of bovine besnoitiosis in Europe is increasing, which is why growing attention has been given to the condition during the past decade. This paper reviews pertinent information on the biology, epidemiology, pathology, clinical signs, diagnosis and control of caprine besnoitiosis, together with its similarities to, and differences from, bovine besnoitiosis. The serious economic consequences of besnoitiosis on goat breeding and local meat and hide industries is also considered.

Private sector involvement in the control of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) in the Kazungula district of Zambia benefitted the community and the control strategy

Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) is a disease of economic importance that is widely distributed in sub-Saharan African and contributes significantly to cattle morbidity and mortality. Lack of resources to implement eradication measures has led to the disease becoming endemic in most areas in sub-Saharan Africa where governments have little resources and the majority of the people are poor. Usually, control and eradication of such diseases as CBPP is treated as a public good by governments and to achieve this, governments are usually assisted by nongovernment organisations, bilateral government programmes and international donors. The private sector, which usually is companies that run businesses to make profit, although not very well established in sub-Saharan Africa could play a big role in the eradication of CBPP in the region. This could play a dual role of promoting investment and also eradicate livestock diseases which have proved a menace in the livestock sector. This paper highlights the role played by the private sector in the control of CBPP in Zambia.