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Ihrmark K, Bödeker ITM, Cruz-Martinez K, Friberg H, Kubartova A, Schenck J, Strid Y, Stenlid J, Brandström-Durling M, Clemmensen KE, Lindahl BD. New primers to amplify the fungal ITS2 region--evaluation by 454-sequencing of artificial and natural communities. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 2012; 82:666-77. [PMID: 22738186 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6941.2012.01437.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 947] [Impact Index Per Article: 78.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2012] [Revised: 06/15/2012] [Accepted: 06/22/2012] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
With recent methodological advances, molecular markers are increasingly used for semi-quantitative analyses of fungal communities. The aim to preserve quantitative relationships between genotypes through PCR places new demands on primers to accurately match target sites and provide short amplicons. The internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of the ribosome encoding genes is a commonly used marker for many fungal groups. Here, we describe three new primers - fITS7, gITS7 and fITS9, which may be used to amplify the fungal ITS2 region by targeting sites in the 5.8S encoding gene. We evaluated the primers and compared their performance with the commonly used ITS1f primer by 454-sequencing of both artificially assembled templates and field samples. When the entire ITS region was amplified using the ITS1f/ITS4 primer combination, we found strong bias against species with longer amplicons. This problem could be overcome by using the new primers, which produce shorter amplicons and better preserve the quantitative composition of the template. In addition, the new primers yielded more diverse amplicon communities than the ITS1f primer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarina Ihrmark
- Department of Forest Mycology and Plant Pathology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
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Boberg JB, Näsholm T, Finlay RD, Stenlid J, Lindahl BD. Nitrogen availability affects saprotrophic basidiomycetes decomposing pine needles in a long term laboratory study. FUNGAL ECOL 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.funeco.2011.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Rosling A, Cox F, Cruz-Martinez K, Ihrmark K, Grelet GA, Lindahl BD, Menkis A, James TY. Archaeorhizomycetes: unearthing an ancient class of ubiquitous soil fungi. Science 2011; 333:876-9. [PMID: 21836015 DOI: 10.1126/science.1206958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 205] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Estimates suggest that only one-tenth of the true fungal diversity has been described. Among numerous fungal lineages known only from environmental DNA sequences, Soil Clone Group 1 is the most ubiquitous. These globally distributed fungi may dominate below-ground fungal communities, but their placement in the fungal tree of life has been uncertain. Here, we report cultures of this group and describe the class, Archaeorhizomycetes, phylogenetically placed within subphylum Taphrinomycotina in the Ascomycota. Archaeorhizomycetes comprises hundreds of cryptically reproducing filamentous species that do not form recognizable mycorrhizal structures and have saprotrophic potential, yet are omnipresent in roots and rhizosphere soil and show ecosystem and host root habitat specificity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Rosling
- Department of Forest Mycology and Pathology, Uppsala BioCentre, SLU, Box 7026, 750 07 Uppsala, Sweden.
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Henrik Nilsson R, Tedersoo L, Lindahl BD, Kjøller R, Carlsen T, Quince C, Abarenkov K, Pennanen T, Stenlid J, Bruns T, Larsson KH, Kõljalg U, Kauserud H. Towards standardization of the description and publication of next-generation sequencing datasets of fungal communities. New Phytol 2011; 191:314-318. [PMID: 21557749 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2011.03755.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- R Henrik Nilsson
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Box 461, 405 30 Göteborg, Sweden
- Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu. 46 Vanemuise St. 51014 Tartu, Estonia
- (Author for correspondence: tel +46 31 7862623; email )
| | - Leho Tedersoo
- Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu. 46 Vanemuise St. 51014 Tartu, Estonia
- Natural History Museum of Tartu University, 46 Vanemuise St. 51014 Tartu, Estonia
| | - Björn D Lindahl
- Department of Forest Mycology and Pathology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Box 7026, 750 07 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Rasmus Kjøller
- Biological Institute, Terrestrial Ecology, University of Copenhagen, Øster Farimagsgade 2D, DK-1353 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Tor Carlsen
- Department of Biology, University of Oslo, PO Box 1066 Blindern, N-0316 Oslo, Norway
| | | | - Kessy Abarenkov
- Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu. 46 Vanemuise St. 51014 Tartu, Estonia
| | - Taina Pennanen
- The Finnish Forest Research Institute, PL 18, FI-01301 Vantaa, Finland
| | - Jan Stenlid
- Department of Forest Mycology and Pathology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Box 7026, 750 07 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Tom Bruns
- Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Karl-Henrik Larsson
- The Mycological Herbarium, Natural History Museum, University of Oslo, PO Box 1172, Blindern, N-0318 Oslo, Norway
| | - Urmas Kõljalg
- Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu. 46 Vanemuise St. 51014 Tartu, Estonia
- Natural History Museum of Tartu University, 46 Vanemuise St. 51014 Tartu, Estonia
| | - Håvard Kauserud
- Department of Biology, University of Oslo, PO Box 1066 Blindern, N-0316 Oslo, Norway
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Wallander H, Johansson U, Sterkenburg E, Brandström Durling M, Lindahl BD. Production of ectomycorrhizal mycelium peaks during canopy closure in Norway spruce forests. New Phytol 2010; 187:1124-1134. [PMID: 20561206 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2010.03324.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
*Here, species composition and biomass production of actively growing ectomycorrhizal (EM) mycelia were studied over the rotation period of managed Norway spruce (Picea abies) stands in south-western Sweden. *The EM mycelia were collected using ingrowth mesh bags incubated in the forest soil during one growing season. Fungal biomass was estimated by ergosterol analysis and the EM species were identified by 454 sequencing of internal transcribed spacer (ITS) amplicons. Nutrient availability and the fungal biomass in soil samples were also estimated. *Biomass production peaked in young stands (10-30 yr old) before the first thinning phase. Tylospora fibrillosa dominated the EM community, especially in these young stands, where it constituted 80% of the EM amplicons derived from the mesh bags. Species richness increased in older stands. *The establishment of EM mycelial networks in young Norway spruce stands requires large amounts of carbon, while much less is needed to sustain the EM community in older stands. The variation in EM biomass production over the rotation period has implications for carbon sequestration rates in forest soils.
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Affiliation(s)
- Håkan Wallander
- Department of Microbial Ecology, Lund University, SE-223 62 Lund, Sweden
| | - Ulf Johansson
- Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Tönnersjöheden Experimental Forest, PO Box 17, SE-31038 Simlångsdalen, Sweden
| | - Erica Sterkenburg
- Department of Forest Mycology and Pathology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences PO Box 7026, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Mikael Brandström Durling
- Department of Forest Mycology and Pathology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences PO Box 7026, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Björn D Lindahl
- Department of Forest Mycology and Pathology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences PO Box 7026, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden
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Nygren CMR, Eberhardt U, Karlsson M, Parrent JL, Lindahl BD, Taylor AFS. Growth on nitrate and occurrence of nitrate reductase-encoding genes in a phylogenetically diverse range of ectomycorrhizal fungi. New Phytol 2008; 180:875-889. [PMID: 18783355 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2008.02618.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungi are often considered to be most prevalent under conditions where organic sources of N predominate. However, ECM fungi are increasingly exposed to nitrate from anthropogenic sources. Currently, the ability of ECM fungi to metabolize this nitrate is poorly understood. Here, growth was examined among 106 isolates, representing 68 species, of ECM fungi on nitrate as the sole N source. In addition, the occurrence of genes coding for the nitrate reductase enzyme (nar gene) in a broad range of ectomycorrhizal fungi was investigated. All isolates grew on nitrate, but there was a strong taxonomic signature in the biomass production, with the Russulaceae and Amanita showing the lowest growth. Thirty-five partial nar sequences were obtained from 43 tested strains comprising 31 species and 10 genera. These taxa represent three out of the four clades of the Agaricales within which ECM fungi occur. No nar sequences were recovered from the Russulaceae and Amanita, but Southern hybridization showed that the genes were present. The results demonstrate that the ability to utilize nitrate as an N source is widespread in ECM fungi, even in those fungi from boreal forests where the supply of nitrate may be very low.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cajsa M R Nygren
- Department of Forest Mycology and Pathology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, PO Box 7026, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden.
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Toljander JF, Lindahl BD, Paul LR, Elfstrand M, Finlay RD. Influence of arbuscular mycorrhizal mycelial exudates on soil bacterial growth and community structure. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 2007; 61:295-304. [PMID: 17535297 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6941.2007.00337.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 148] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Plant root systems colonized by arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi have previously been shown to influence soil bacterial populations; however, the direct influence of the AM extraradical mycelium itself on bacterial growth and community composition is not well understood. In this study, we investigated the effects of exudates produced by AM extraradical mycelia on the growth and development of an extracted soil bacterial community in vitro. The chemical composition of the mycelial exudates was analysed using proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometry. Following the addition of exudates to a bacterial community extracted from soil, bacterial growth and vitality were determined using a bacterial vitality stain and fluorescence microscopy. Changes in community composition were also analysed at various times over the course of 3 days by terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis, in combination with cloning and sequencing of 16S rRNA genes. Mycelial exudates increased bacterial growth and vitality and changed bacterial community composition. Several Gammaproteobacteria, including a taxon within the Enterobacteriaceae, increased in frequency of occurrence in response to AM mycelial exudates. This study is the first attempt to identify carbohydrates from the extraradical mycelium of an AM fungus, and demonstrates the direct effects of mycelial exudates on a soil bacterial community.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonas F Toljander
- Department of Forest Mycology and Pathology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden.
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Lindahl BD, Ihrmark K, Boberg J, Trumbore SE, Högberg P, Stenlid J, Finlay RD. Spatial separation of litter decomposition and mycorrhizal nitrogen uptake in a boreal forest. New Phytol 2007; 173:611-620. [PMID: 17244056 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2006.01936.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 396] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Our understanding of how saprotrophic and mycorrhizal fungi interact to re-circulate carbon and nutrients from plant litter and soil organic matter is limited by poor understanding of their spatiotemporal dynamics. In order to investigate how different functional groups of fungi contribute to carbon and nitrogen cycling at different stages of decomposition, we studied changes in fungal community composition along vertical profiles through a Pinus sylvestris forest soil. We combined molecular identification methods with 14C dating of the organic matter, analyses of carbon:nitrogen (C:N) ratios and 15N natural abundance measurements. Saprotrophic fungi were primarily confined to relatively recently (< 4 yr) shed litter components on the surface of the forest floor, where organic carbon was mineralized while nitrogen was retained. Mycorrhizal fungi dominated in the underlying, more decomposed litter and humus, where they apparently mobilized N and made it available to their host plants. Our observations show that the degrading and nutrient-mobilizing components of the fungal community are spatially separated. This has important implications for biogeochemical studies of boreal forest ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Björn D Lindahl
- Department of Forest Mycology & Pathology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Box 7026, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Katarina Ihrmark
- Department of Forest Mycology & Pathology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Box 7026, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Johanna Boberg
- Department of Forest Mycology & Pathology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Box 7026, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Susan E Trumbore
- Department of Earth System Science, University of California at Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697-3100, USA
| | - Peter Högberg
- Department of Forest Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SE-901 83 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Jan Stenlid
- Department of Forest Mycology & Pathology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Box 7026, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Roger D Finlay
- Department of Forest Mycology & Pathology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Box 7026, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden
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Wallander H, Lindahl BD, Nilsson LO. Limited transfer of nitrogen between wood decomposing and ectomycorrhizal mycelia when studied in the field. Mycorrhiza 2006; 16:213-217. [PMID: 16598505 DOI: 10.1007/s00572-006-0037-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2005] [Accepted: 12/23/2005] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Transfer of (15)N between interacting mycelia of a wood-decomposing fungus (Hypholoma fasciculare) and an ectomycorrhizal fungus (Tomentellopsis submollis) was studied in a mature beech (Fagus sylvatica) forest. The amount of (15)N transferred from the wood decomposer to the ectomycorrhizal fungus was compared to the amount of (15)N released from the wood-decomposing mycelia into the soil solution as (15)N-NH(4). The study was performed in peat-filled plastic containers placed in forest soil in the field. The wood-decomposing mycelium was growing from an inoculated wood piece and the ectomycorrhizal mycelium from an introduced root from a mature tree. The containers were harvested after 41 weeks when physical contact between the two foraging mycelia was established. At harvest, (15)N content was analyzed in the peat (total N and (15)NH(4) (+)) and in the mycorrhizal roots. A limited amount of (15)N was transferred to the ectomycorrhizal fungus and this transfer could be explained by (15)NH(4) (+) released from the wood-decomposing fungus without involving any antagonistic interactions between the two mycelia. Using our approach, it was possible to study nutritional interactions between basidiomycete mycelia under field conditions and this and earlier studies suggest that the outcomes of such interactions are highly species-specific and depend on environmental conditions such as resource availability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Håkan Wallander
- Department of Microbial Ecology, Ecology Building, Lund University, Lund, 223 62, Sweden.
| | - Björn D Lindahl
- Department of Forest Mycology and Pathology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Box 7026, Uppsala, 750 07, Sweden
| | - Lars Ola Nilsson
- Department of Microbial Ecology, Ecology Building, Lund University, Lund, 223 62, Sweden
- Danish Centre for Forest, Landscape and Planning, KVL, Hørsholm Kongevej 11, 2970, Hørsholm, Denmark
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Toljander YK, Lindahl BD, Holmer L, Högberg NOS. Environmental fluctuations facilitate species co-existence and increase decomposition in communities of wood decay fungi. Oecologia 2006; 148:625-31. [PMID: 16538482 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-006-0406-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2005] [Accepted: 02/21/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
A fluctuating environment may facilitate co-existence of species, and high species richness may be important for maintaining ecosystem processes under changing environmental conditions. A positive relationship has been found between species richness and primary production in many experiments, and there is now an increasing interest whether similar relationships also apply to microorganisms and decomposition. Basidiomycete fungi are the primary decomposers of wood with the functional groups brown and white rot fungi, which differ with respect to decay strategy. In this study, 16 species of boreal wood decay fungi, 8 brown rot fungi and 8 white rot fungi, were assembled in artificial communities. The aims were to study species persistence, wood decomposition and metabolic efficiency in fungal communities of increasing levels of species richness under constant and fluctuating temperature regimes. Species persistence was generally low, but temperature fluctuations facilitated co-existence of species. Decomposition was highest at intermediate diversity levels under the fluctuating temperature regime. Metabolic efficiency, estimated as the amount of fungal mycelium formed per amount of degraded wood, decreased with increasing community complexity under the fluctuating temperature regime. Brown and white rot fungi differed in decomposition rates and metabolic efficiency, but no synergistic effects were found where the two functional groups were mixed. This study demonstrates how niche differentiation in a variable environment may act to maintain diversity and function. In our experiment, differences in functional responses to the varying temperature rather than resource partitioning between brown and white rot fungi had significant effects. Niche differentiation is likely to be particularly important in maintaining species diversity in communities of wood decaying fungi, which are known from previous studies to be characterised by intense competition, and where otherwise metabolically costly interactions lead to species exclusion and dominance by highly competitive species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ylva K Toljander
- Department of Forest Mycology and Pathology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Box 7026, 750 07, Uppsala, Sweden
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Abstract
The nitrogen (N) content of wood is usually suboptimal for fungal colonization. During decomposition of wood, an increasing fraction of the N becomes incorporated into fungal mycelium. Between 5 and 50% of the N in wood-degrading mycelium may be incorporated into chitin. Chitinolytic enzymes render this N available for re-utilization. Here, the activities of chitinolytic enzymes produced by wood-rotting fungi during degradation of spruce (Picea abies) wood were quantified in situ using fluorogenic 4-methylumbelliferyl substrates. A new method was developed that enables spatial quantification of enzyme activities on solid surfaces. All of the three tested fungi produced endochitinases, chitobiosidases and N-acetylhexosaminidases during colonization of wood. N-acetylhexosaminidase activity, and in some cases also chitobiosidase and endochitinase activities, were higher during secondary overgrowth of another fungus than during primary colonization of noncolonized wood. The results suggest that wood-degrading fungi degrade their own cell walls as well as the hyphae of earlier colonizers. Recycling of cell wall material within single mycelia and between fungal individuals during succession may lead to retention of N within woody debris.
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Affiliation(s)
- Björn D Lindahl
- Department of Forest Mycology and Pathology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Box 7026, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden.
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Abstract
• The genetic potential of ectomycorrhizal fungi to produce N-acetylhexosaminidases was investigated here. N-acetylhexosaminidases are enzymes that cleave monosaccharides from oligomers of N-acetylhexosamines and play an important role in the degradation of chitin. • Degenerate PCR-primers were designed against genes coding for N-acetylhexosaminidases in basidiomycetes. PCR was performed with DNA templates extracted from sporocarps of 26 ectomycorrhizal fungal species and two saprotrophs. • PCR-products were obtained from 18 species representing 12 genera distributed throughout the basidiomycete phylogeny. Sequencing confirmed that the products were homologous with N-acetylhexosaminidase genes from plants, animals and other fungi. Some species yielded two PCR-products representing isoenzymes. • Chitin constitutes a potentially important nitrogen source in soil. Our results demonstrate that a wide range of ectomycorrhizal fungi have the genetic potential to produce N-acetylhexosaminidases, and the expression of this potential would enable them to exploit polymers of amino sugars as a source of nitrogen for themselves and their host plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Björn D Lindahl
- Department of Forest Mycology and Pathology, SLU, Box 7026, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Andy F S Taylor
- Department of Forest Mycology and Pathology, SLU, Box 7026, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden
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Abstract
• Ectomycorrhizal fungi occur abundantly in the mineral horizons of forest soils, but their interactions with mineral substrates are largely unknown. We have examined the proliferation of ectomycorrhizal roots and mycelium colonising different mineral substrates. • By exposing the shoots of Pinus sylvestris seedlings to air containing 14 CO2 , the carbon allocation patterns in intact ectomycorrhizal associations could be monitored using electronic autoradiography. • In plants colonised by either Hebeloma crustuliniforme or Piloderma fallax, a larger fraction of the photosynthetically derived carbon was allocated to a mineral soil substrate compared with a Sphagnum peat. In mycorrhizal seedlings colonised by H. crustuliniforme, carbon allocation was significantly greater to roots and mycelia colonising patches of pure potassium feldspar than to those in patches of quartz. • These results suggest that ectomycorrhizal mycelia may respond to the presence of different mineral substrates by regulating their growth and activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Rosling
- Department of Forest Mycology and Pathology, SLU, PO Box 7026, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Björn D Lindahl
- Department of Forest Mycology and Pathology, SLU, PO Box 7026, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Roger D Finlay
- Department of Forest Mycology and Pathology, SLU, PO Box 7026, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden
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Rosling A, Landeweert R, Lindahl BD, Larsson KH, Kuyper TW, Taylor AFS, Finlay RD. Vertical distribution of ectomycorrhizal fungal taxa in a podzol soil profile. New Phytol 2003; 159:775-783. [PMID: 33873609 DOI: 10.1046/j.1469-8137.2003.00829.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 158] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
• Studies of ectomycorrhizal fungal communities in forest soils are usually restricted to the uppermost organic horizons. Boreal forest podzols are highly stratified and little is known about the vertical distribution of ectomycorrhizal communities in the underlying mineral horizons. • Ectomycorrhizal root tips were sampled from seven horizons in three continuous columns of a 52-cm deep podzol profile. Root tips were sorted into morphological groups and the colonising fungi identified by sequencing of the rDNA ITS region. The vertical distribution of mycorrhizal taxa was examined. • A relationship between ectomycorrhizal species composition and soil horizon was found. Tomentellopsis submollis, three Piloderma species and Dermocybe spp. were found predominantly in the upper horizons while Suillus luteus, Lactarius utilis and three undescribed Piloderma species were associated with the mineral horizons. • Two thirds of the root tips were found in the mineral soil and half of the taxa were restricted to the mineral horizons. The results highlight the need to include the mineral soil in order to gain a more accurate representation of the ectomycorrhizal community.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Rosling
- Department of Forest Mycology and Pathology, SLU, Box 7026, 750 07 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - R Landeweert
- Sub-Department of Soil Quality, Wageningen University, Box 8005, NL-6700 EC, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - B D Lindahl
- Department of Forest Mycology and Pathology, SLU, Box 7026, 750 07 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - K-H Larsson
- Botanical Institute, Göteborg University, Box 461, SE-405 30 Göteborg, Sweden
| | - T W Kuyper
- Sub-Department of Soil Quality, Wageningen University, Box 8005, NL-6700 EC, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - A F S Taylor
- Department of Forest Mycology and Pathology, SLU, Box 7026, 750 07 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - R D Finlay
- Department of Forest Mycology and Pathology, SLU, Box 7026, 750 07 Uppsala, Sweden
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