Zika Immunoassay Based on Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering Nanoprobes

Zika virus (ZIKV) was considered a public health emergency of international concern after the 2015 outbreak. Serological tests based on immunoassay platforms is one of the methods applied on the diagnosis of ZIKV and Dengue virus (DENV). However, the high limits of detection (LOD) and the cross-reactivity between ZIKV and DENV are still limitations in immunological tests. In order to tackle these issues, we have designed an immune-specific assay based on surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) nanoprobes. Gold shell-isolated nanoparticles (Au-SHINs) were synthesized with 100 nm Au nanoparticles and 4 nm silica shell thickness coated with Nile Blue (Raman reporter). Then, the SERS nanoprobes were wrapped in a final silica shell and functionalized with monoclonal anti-ZIKV NS1 antibodies. Concentrations of ZIKV NS1 down to 10 ng/mL were probed free of cross-reactivity with DENV NS1 antigens.

Ex Vivo Detection of Circulating Tumor Cells from Whole Blood by Direct Nanoparticle Visualization

The detection of circulating tumor cells (CTCs) from blood samples can predict prognosis, response to systemic chemotherapy, and metastatic spread of carcinoma. Therefore, approaches for CTC identification is an important aspect of current cancer research. Here, a method for the direct visualization of nanoparticle-coated CTCs under dark field illumination is presented. A metastatic breast cancer cell line (4T1) was transduced with a non-native target protein (Thy1.1). Positive 4T1-Thy1.1 cells incubated with antibody-coated metallic nanoshells appeared overly bright at low magnification, allowing a quick screening of samples and easy visual detection of even single isolated CTCs. The use of a nontransduced cell line as control creates the ideal scenario to evaluate nonspecific binding. A murine metastatic tumor model with the 4T1-Thy1.1 cell line was also implemented. Blood was drawn from mice over the course of one month, and CTCs were successfully detected in all positive subjects. This work validates the use of metallic nanoshells as labels for direct visualization of CTCs while providing guidelines to a systematic development of nanotechnology-based detection systems for CTCs.

Breast cancer subtype specific biochemical responses to radiation

External beam radiotherapy is a common form of treatment for breast cancer.

Digital Protocol for Chemical Analysis at Ultralow Concentrations by Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering

Single molecule surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SM-SERS) has the potential to revolutionize quantitative analysis at ultralow concentrations (less than 1 nM). However, there are no established protocols to generalize the application of this technique in analytical chemistry. Here, a protocol for quantification at ultralow concentrations using SM-SERS is proposed. The approach aims to take advantage of the stochastic nature of the single-molecule regime to achieved lower limits of quantification (LOQ). Two emerging contaminants commonly found in aquatic environments, enrofloxacin (ENRO) and ciprofloxacin (CIPRO), were chosen as nonresonant molecular probes. The methodology involves a multivariate resolution curve fitting known as non-negative matrix factorization with alternating least-squares algorithm (NMF-ALS) to solve spectral overlaps. The key element of the quantification is to realize that, under SM-SERS conditions, the Raman intensity generated by a molecule adsorbed on a "hotspot" can be digitalized. Therefore, the number of SERS event counts (rather than SERS intensities) was shown to be proportional to the solution concentration. This allowed the determination of both ENRO and CIPRO with high accuracy and precision even at ultralow concentrations regime. The LOQ for both ENRO and CIPRO were achieved at 2.8 pM. The digital SERS protocol, suggested here, is a roadmap for the implementation of SM-SERS as a routine tool for quantification at ultralow concentrations.

Plasmonic labeling of subcellular compartments in cancer cells: multiplexing with fine-tuned gold and silver nanoshells

Fine-tuned gold and silver nanoshells were produced via an entirely reformulated synthesis. The new method yielded ultramonodisperse samples, with polydispersity indexes (PI) as low as 0.02 and narrow extinction bands suited for multiplex analysis. A library of nanoshell samples with localized surface plasmon resonances (LSPR) spanning across the visible range was synthesized. Hyperspectral analysis revealed that the average scattering spectrum of 100 nanoshells matched closely to the spectrum of a single nanoshell, indicating an unprecedented low level of nanoparticle-to-nanoparticle variation for this type of system. A cell labeling experiment, targeting different subcellular compartments in MCF-7 human breast cancer cells, demonstrated that these monodisperse nanoparticles can be used as a multiplex platform for single cell analysis at the intracellular and extracellular level. Antibody-coated gold nanoshells targeted the plasma membrane, while silver nanoshells coated with a nuclear localization signal (NLS) targeted the nuclear membrane. A fluorescence counterstaining experiment, as well as single cell hyperspectral microscopy showed the excellent selectivity and specificity of each type of nanoparticle for its designed subcellular compartment. A time-lapse photodegradation experiment confirmed the enhanced stability of the nanoshells over fluorescent labeling and their capabilities for long-term live cell imaging.

SPR platform based on image acquisition for HER2 antigen detection

HER2 antigen is a marker used for breast cancer diagnosis and prevention. Its determination has great importance since breast cancer is one of the most insidious types of cancer in women. HER2 antigen assessment in human serum is traditionally achieved by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA method), but it has some disadvantages, such as suppressing the thermodynamic-kinetic studies regarding the antibody-antigen interaction, and the use of labeled molecules that can promote false positive responses. Biosensors based on surface plasmon resonance (SPR) are sensitive optical techniques widely applied on bioassays. The plasmonic devices do not operate with labeled molecules, overcoming conventional immunoassay limitations, and enabling a direct detection of target analytes. In this way, a new SPR biosensor to assess HER2 antigen has been proposed, using nanohole arrays on a gold thin film by signal transduction of transmitted light measurements from array image acquisitions. These metallic nanostructures may couple the light directly on surface plasmons using a simple collinear arrangement. The proposed device reached an average sensitivity for refractive index (RI) variation on a metal surface of 4146 intensity units/RIU (RIU = RI units). The device feasibility on biomolecular assessment was evaluated. For this, 3 ng ml^-1 known HER2 antigen concentration was efficiently flowed (using a microfluidic system) and detected from aqueous solutions. This outcome shows that the device may be a powerful apparatus for bioassays, particularly toward breast cancer diagnosis and prognosis.

Raman spectroscopy identifies radiation response in human non-small cell lung cancer xenografts

External beam radiation therapy is a standard form of treatment for numerous cancers. Despite this, there are no approved methods to account for patient specific radiation sensitivity. In this report, Raman spectroscopy (RS) was used to identify radiation-induced biochemical changes in human non-small cell lung cancer xenografts. Chemometric analysis revealed unique radiation-related Raman signatures that were specific to nucleic acid, lipid, protein and carbohydrate spectral features. Among these changes was a dramatic shift in the accumulation of glycogen spectral bands for doses of 5 or 15 Gy when compared to unirradiated tumours. When spatial mapping was applied in this analysis there was considerable variability as we found substantial intra- and inter-tumour heterogeneity in the distribution of glycogen and other RS spectral features. Collectively, these data provide unique insight into the biochemical response of tumours, irradiated in vivo, and demonstrate the utility of RS for detecting distinct radiobiological responses in human tumour xenografts.

Polarization-dependent extraordinary optical transmission from upconversion nanoparticles

Enhanced upconversion (UC) emission was experimentally demonstrated using gold double antenna nanoparticles coupled to nanoslits in gold films. The transmitted red emission from UC ytterbium and erbium co-doped sodium yttrium fluoride (NaYF4:Yb(3+)/Er(3+)) nanoparticles (UC NPs) at ∼665 nm (excited with a 980 nm diode laser) was enhanced relative to the green emission at ∼550 nm. The relatively enhanced UC NP emission could be tuned by the different polarization-dependent extraordinary optical transmission modes coupled to the gold nanostructures. Finite-difference time-domain calculations suggest that the preferential enhanced UC emission is related to a combination of different surface plasmon mode excitation coupling to cavity Fabry-Perot interactions. A maximum UC enhancement of 6-fold was measured for nanoslit arrays in the absence of the double antennas. In the presence of the double nanoantennas inside the nanoslits, the UC enhancement was between 2- and 4-fold, depending on the experimental conditions.

Improving the performance of gold nanohole array biosensors by controlling the optical collimation conditions

An experimental investigation on how the bulk and surface sensitivities of gold nanohole arrays fabricated by interference lithography affect the degree of white light beam collimation is presented. The optical transmission response of nanohole arrays has been recorded by focused and collimated beam transmission spectra. The results show that both the bulk and surface sensitivities for the collimated case are much larger than for the focused case. In particular, the shape of the spectra was dependent on the degree of beam collimation. The results showed that improved sensing performance (around 3.5 times) and higher figure of merit (around 4.4 times) can be obtained by simply adjusting the incident/collection experimental conditions in transmission measurements.

A Raman spectroscopic study of cell response to clinical doses of ionizing radiation

The drive toward personalized radiation therapy (RT) has created significant interest in determining patient-specific tumor and normal tissue responses to radiation. Raman spectroscopy (RS) is a non-invasive and label-free technique that can detect radiation response through assessment of radiation-induced biochemical changes in tumor cells. In the current study, single-cell RS identified specific radiation-induced responses in four human epithelial tumor cell lines: lung (H460), breast (MCF-7, MDA-MB-231), and prostate (LNCaP), following exposure to clinical doses of radiation (2-10 Gy). At low radiation doses (2 Gy), H460 and MCF-7 cell lines showed an increase in glycogen-related spectral features, and the LNCaP cell line showed a membrane phospholipid-related radiation response. In these cell lines, only spectral information from populations receiving 10 Gy or less was required to identify radiation-related features using principal component analysis (PCA). In contrast, the MDA-MB-231 cell line showed a significant increase in protein relative to nucleic acid and lipid spectral features at doses of 6 Gy or higher, and high-dose information (30, 50 Gy) was required for PCA to identify this biological response. The biochemical nature of the radiation-related changes occurring in cells exposed to clinical doses was found to segregate by status of p53 and radiation sensitivity. Furthermore, the utility of RS to identify a biological response in human tumor cells exposed to therapeutic doses of radiation was found to be governed by the extent of the biochemical changes induced by a radiation response and is therefore cell line specific. The results of this study demonstrate the utility and effectiveness of single-cell RS to identify and measure biological responses in tumor cells exposed to standard radiotherapy doses.

SERS optrode as a “fishing rod” to direct pre-concentrate analytes from superhydrophobic surfaces

SERS optrodes were used to “fish” aqueous drops from superhydrophobic surfaces, which led to an improvement of 2–3 orders of magnitude in sensitivity. 20 pg of the pesticide triazophos was detected by this method.

Surface plasmon enhanced up-conversion from NaYF4:Yb/Er/Gd nano-rods

The enhancement of upconversion emission from Yb³⁺–Er³⁺–Gd³⁺ co-doped sodium yttrium fluoride (NaYF₄:Yb/Er/Gd) nano-rods (UC NRs) was controlled by gold nanoparticle arrays (AuNPAs) of various periodicities.

Comparison of Ag and SiO2 Nanoparticles for Light Trapping Applications in Silicon Thin Film Solar Cells

Plasmonic and photonic light trapping structures can significantly improve the efficiency of solar cells. This work presents an experimental and computational comparison of identically shaped metallic (Ag) and nonmetallic (SiO2) nanoparticles integrated to the back contact of amorphous silicon solar cells. Our results show comparable performance for both samples, suggesting that minor influence arises from the nanoparticle material. Particularly, no additional beneficial effect of the plasmonic features due to metallic nanoparticles could be observed.

Raman Spectral Studies of Aqueous Acidic Pyrazine Solutions

Raman spectra of aqueous pyrazine have been investigated in acidic media: HCl from pH = 4 up to 11 M; HCLO4 from 0.1 M to 12 M; H2SO4 form 0.1 M to 18 M. From observation of the shifts of the bands from neutral solutions, it has been possible to identify bands uniquely characteristic of unprotonated pyrazine and its two protonated forms. The diprotonated form was only observed for high concentrations of HCLO4 and H2SO4. From bandfitting of the spectral contours it has been possible to construct the species distribution diagram and estimate the pK values. Raman bands of the three species have been identified and assigned. The results are used to explain an unassigned band at 1235 cm-1, reported by several authors, in SERS from pyrazine on silver and gold electrodes.

A silver nanoparticle embedded hydrogel as a substrate for surface contamination analysis by surface-enhanced Raman scattering

A surface enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) hydrogel substrate, capable of extracting small amounts of organic species from surfaces of different types of materials with variable roughness, has been fabricated.

Quantification of ovarian cancer markers with integrated microfluidic concentration gradient and imaging nanohole surface plasmon resonance

Nanohole array-based biosensors integrated with a microfluidic concentration gradient generator were used for imaging detection and quantification of ovarian cancer markers. Calibration curves based on controlled concentrations of the analyte were created using a microfluidic stepped diffusive mixing scheme. Quantification of samples with unknown concentration of analyte was achieved by image-intensity comparison with the calibration curves. The biosensors were first used to detect the immobilization of ovarian cancer marker antibodies, and subsequently applied for the quantification of the ovarian cancer marker r-PAX8 (with a limit of detection of about 5 nM and a dynamic range from 0.25 to 9.0 μg.mL(-1)). The proposed biosensor demonstrated the ability of self-generating calibration curves on-chip in an integrated microfluidic platform, representing a further step towards the development of comprehensive lab-on-chip biomedical diagnostics based on nanohole array technology.

Periodic metallic nanostructures as plasmonic chemical sensors

Periodic plasmonic nanostructures are being widely studied, optimized, and developed to produce a new generation of low-cost and efficient chemical sensors and biosensors. The extensive variety of nanostructures, interrogation approaches, and setups makes a direct comparison of the reported performance from different sensing platforms a challenging exercise. In this feature Article, the most common parameters used for the evaluation of plasmonic nanostructures will be reviewed, with particular focus on the advances in periodic plasmonic nanostructures. Recent progress in the fabrication methods that allow for the high-volume production of periodic plasmonic sensors at low cost will be described, together with an assessment of the state of the art in terms of periodic structures employed for chemical sensing.

Improved synthesis of gold and silver nanoshells

Metallic nanoshells have been in evidence as multifunctional particles for optical and biomedical applications. Their surface plasmon resonance can be tuned over the electromagnetic spectrum by simply adjusting the shell thickness. Obtaining these particles, however, is a complex and time-consuming process, which involves the preparation and functionalization of silica nanoparticles, synthesis of very small metallic nanoparticles seeds, attachment of these seeds to the silica core, and, finally, growing of the shells in a solution commonly referred as K-gold. Here we present synthetic modifications that allow metallic nanoshells to be obtained in a faster and highly reproducible manner. The main improved steps include a procedure for quick preparation of 2.3 ± 0.5 nm gold particles and a faster approach to synthesize the silica cores. An investigation on the effect of the stirring speed on the shell growth showed that the optimal stirring speeds for gold and silver shells were 190 and 1500 rpm, respectively. In order to demonstrate the performance of the nanoshells fabricated by our method in a typical plasmonic application, a method to immobilize these particles on a glass slide was implemented. The immobilized nanoshells were used as substrates for the surface-enhanced Raman scattering from Nile Blue A.