Measurement of the 1H(γ, p)π0 reaction using a novel nucleon spin polarimeter

We report the first large-acceptance measurement of polarization transfer from a polarized photon beam to a recoiling nucleon. The measurement pioneers a novel polarimetry technique, which can be applied to many other nuclear and hadron physics experiments. The commissioning reaction of 1H(γ, p)π0 in the range 0.4<Eγ<1.4  GeV validates the technique and provides essential new data to constrain the excitation spectrum of the nucleon.

Narrow structure in the excitation function of η photoproduction off the neutron

The photoproduction of η mesons off nucleons bound in 2H and 3He has been measured in coincidence with recoil protons and recoil neutrons for incident photon energies from threshold up to 1.4 GeV. The experiments were performed at the Mainz MAMI accelerator, using the Glasgow tagged photon facility. Decay photons from the η→2γ and η→3π0 decays and the recoil nucleons were detected with an almost 4π electromagnetic calorimeter combining the Crystal Ball and TAPS detectors. The data from both targets are of excellent statistical quality and show a narrow structure in the excitation function of γn→nη. The results from the two measurements are consistent, taking into account the expected effects from nuclear Fermi motion. The best estimates for position and intrinsic width of the structure are W=(1670±5)  MeV and Γ=(30±15)  MeV. For the first time precise results for the angular dependence of this structure have been extracted.

The tumor suppressor CYLD controls the function of murine regulatory T cells

CYLD was originally identified as a tumor suppressor gene mutated in familial cylindromatosis, an autosomal dominant predisposition to multiple benign neoplasms of the skin known as cylindromas. The CYLD protein is a deubiquitinating enzyme that acts as a negative regulator of NF-κB and JNK signaling through its interaction with NEMO and TNFR-associated factor 2. We have previously described a novel mouse strain that expresses solely and excessively a naturally occurring splice variant of CYLD (CYLD(ex7/8)). In this study, we demonstrate that CYLD plays a critical role in Treg development and function. T cells of CYLD(ex7/8) mice had a hyperactive phenotype manifested by increased production of inflammatory cytokines and constitutive activation of the NF-κB pathway. Furthermore, the amount of Foxp3(+) regulatory T cells in these mice was markedly enhanced in thymus and peripheral organs. Importantly, these regulatory T cells displayed decreased expression levels of CD25 and CTLA-4 associated with impaired suppressive capacity. Hence, our data emphasize an essential role of CYLD in maintaining T cell homeostasis as well as normal T regulatory cell function, thereby controlling abnormal T cell responses.

Transcription factor NFATc2 controls the emergence of colon cancer associated with IL-6-dependent colitis

NFAT transcription factors control T-cell activation and function. Specifically, the transcription factor NFATc2 affects the regulation of cell differentiation and growth and plays a critical role in the development of colonic inflammation. Here, we used an experimental model of colitis-associated colorectal carcinoma to investigate the contribution of NFATc2 to the promotion of colonic tumors. Compared with wild-type animals that readily presented with multiple colon tumors, NFATc2-deficient mice were protected from tumor development. This observed decrease in colonic tumor progression was associated with reduced endoscopic inflammation, increased apoptosis of lamina propria T lymphocytes, and significantly reduced levels of the critical proinflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL)-21 and IL-6. Administration of hyper IL-6 abrogated protection from tumor progression in NFATc2-knockout mice and restored tumor incidence to control levels. Taken together, our findings highlight a pivotal role for NFATc2 in the establishment of inflammation-associated colorectal tumors mediated by control of IL-6 expression.

Overexpression of short CYLD leads to autoimmunity and production of autoantibodies (47.20)

CYLD is a tumour suppressor gene which plays an important role in NF-kB signaling. To analyze the function of CYLD in vivo we used the CYLDex7/8 mouse strain, which is characterized by loss of the full-length transcript and overexpression of a naturally occurring short splice variant of the cyld gene (sCYLD). This overexpression resulted in splenomegaly and lymphadenopathy. Further, the B cell numbers in spleen and lymph nodes were increased at the expense of T cells. CYLDex7/8 mice showed a strong reduction of CD4 single positive (SP) and CD8 SP T cells in the thymus and periphery. In in vitro and in vivo studies we could show that CD4+ T cells display a hyperactive phenotype accompanied with an increased production of inflammatory cytokines. We could also demonstrate a defect in negative selection of CYLDex7/8 thymocytes by using the HY-TCR transgenic system. mTECs in the thymus, which are important for the negative selection of autoreactive T cells, were drastically reduced in number. Since abnormal T cell responses are often associated with chronic inflammations, we examined if CYLDex7/8 mice develop immunological abnormalities. Importantly, we could observe that CYLDex7/8 mice crossed onto TCR transgenic background developed severe colonic inflammation accompanied with high production of nuclear autoantibodies.

Properties of Free-Standing GaN Bulk Crystals Grown by HVPE

GaN wafers 200 μm thick and 30 mm diameter were fabricated. GaN was grown by hydride vapor phase epitaxy on SiC substrates and removed from the substrate by reactive ion etching. Lateral size of the GaN wafers was equal to the size of the initial SiC substrates. GaN wafers were cleaved in pieces and these pieces were characterised. It was found that after the fabrication, GaN crystals were slightly deformed and strained. An anneal at 830°C in nitrogen ambient eliminated the residual strains. The FWHM of ω-scan (0002) x-ray rocking curve for annealed crystals was less than 140 arcsec for both sides of the best GaN crystals. The lattice constants measured from both sides of the crystals were c =5.1853±0.0003 Å and a = 3.1889±0.0001 Å. The Nd – Na concentration determined by a mercury probe was about 2×1017cm−3 for as-grown GaN surface and about 2×1019cm−3 for former interface surface. Photoluminescence spectrum taken at 17 K revealed an edge peak at 3.472 eV with the FWHM value of 2.3 meV. A ratio of the edge peak intensity to the intensity of yellow band was higher than 1000. Initial TEM experiments were performed.

A20 deficiency in B cells enhances B-cell proliferation and results in the development of autoantibodies

A20/TNFAIP3 is an ubiquitin-editing enzyme, important for the regulation of the NF-κB pathway. Mutations in the TNFAIP3 gene have been linked to different human autoimmune disorders. In human B-cell lymphomas, the inactivation of A20 results in constitutive NF-κB activation. Recent studies demonstrate that in mice the germline inactivation of A20 leads to early lethality, due to inflammation in multiple organs of the body. In this report, we describe a new mouse strain allowing for the tissue-specific deletion of A20. We show that B-cell-specific deletion of A20 results in a dramatic reduction in marginal zone B cells. Furthermore, A20-deficient B cells display a hyperactive phenotype represented by enhanced proliferation upon activation. Finally, these mice develop higher levels of serum immunoglobulins, resulting in an excessive production of self-reactive autoantibodies.

Activation of epithelial STAT3 regulates intestinal homeostasis

The intestinal epithelium that lines the mucosal surface along the GI-tract is a key player for the intestinal homeostasis of the healthy individual. In case of a mucosal damage or a barrier defect as seen in patients with inflammatory bowel disease, the balance is disturbed, and translocation of intestinal microbes to the submucosa is facilitated. We recently demonstrated a pivotal role of STAT3 activation in intestinal epithelial cells (IEC) for the restoration of the balance at the mucosal surface of the gut in an experimental colitis model. STAT3 was rapidly induced in intestinal epithelial cells upon challenge of mice in both experimental colitis and intestinal wound healing models. STAT3 activation was found to be dispensable in the steady-state conditions but was important for efficient regeneration of the epithelium in response to injury. Here, we extend our previous findings by showing epithelial STAT3 activation in human patients suffering from IBD and provide additional insights how the activation of epithelial STAT3 by IL-22 regulates intestinal homeostasis and mucosal wound healing. We also demonstrate that antibody-mediated neutralization of IL-22 has little impact on the development of experimental colitis in mice, but significantly delays recovery from colitis. Thus, our data suggest that targeting the STAT3 signaling pathway in IEC is a promising therapeutic approach in situations when the intestinal homeostasis is disturbed, e.g., as seen in Crohn's disease or Ulcerative colitis.

Activation of epithelial STAT3 regulates intestinal homeostasis

The intestinal epithelium that lines the mucosal surface along the GI-tract is a key player for the intestinal homeostasis of the healthy individual. In case of a mucosal damage or a barrier defect as seen in patients with inflammatory bowel disease, the balance is disturbed, and translocation of intestinal microbes to the submucosa is facilitated. We recently demonstrated a pivotal role of STAT3 activation in intestinal epithelial cells (IEC) for the restoration of the balance at the mucosal surface of the gut in an experimental colitis model. STAT3 was rapidly induced in intestinal epithelial cells upon challenge of mice in both experimental colitis and intestinal wound healing models. STAT3 activation was found to be dispensable in the steady-state conditions but was important for efficient regeneration of the epithelium in response to injury. Here, we extend our previous findings by showing epithelial STAT3 activation in human patients suffering from IBD and provide additional insights how the activation of epithelial STAT3 by IL-22 regulates intestinal homeostasis and mucosal wound healing. We also demonstrate that antibody-mediated neutralization of IL-22 has little impact on the development of experimental colitis in mice, but significantly delays recovery from colitis. Thus, our data suggest that targeting the STAT3 signaling pathway in IEC is a promising therapeutic approach in situations when the intestinal homeostasis is disturbed, e.g., as seen in Crohn's disease or Ulcerative colitis.

Beam-helicity asymmetries in double-pion photoproduction off the proton

Beam-helicity asymmetries have been measured at the MAMI accelerator in Mainz in the three isospin channels gamma[over -->]p-->pi(+)pi(0)n, gamma[over -->]p-->pi(0)pi(0)p, and gamma[over -->]p-->pi(+)pi(-)p. The circularly polarized photons, produced from bremsstrahlung of longitudinally polarized electrons, were tagged with the Glasgow magnetic spectrometer. Charged pions and the decay photons of pi(0) mesons were detected in a 4pi electromagnetic calorimeter which combined the Crystal Ball detector with the TAPS detector. The precisely measured asymmetries are very sensitive to details of the production processes and are thus key observables in the modeling of the reaction dynamics.

Incoherent neutral pion photoproduction on 12C

We present the first detailed measurement of incoherent photoproduction of neutral pions to a discrete state of a residual nucleus. The 12C(gamma,pi(0))(12)C*(4.4 MeV) reaction has been studied with the Glasgow photon tagger at MAMI employing a new technique which uses the large solid angle Crystal Ball detector both as a pi(0) spectrometer and to detect decay photons from the excited residual nucleus. The technique has potential applications to a broad range of future nuclear measurements with the Crystal Ball and similar detector systems elsewhere. Such data are sensitive to the propagation of the Delta in the nuclear medium and will give the first information on matter transition form factors from measurements with an electromagnetic probe. The incoherent cross sections are compared to two theoretical predictions including a Delta-hole model.

Cutting edge: trans-signaling via the soluble IL-6R abrogates the induction of FoxP3 in naive CD4+CD25 T cells

Chronic inflammatory diseases may develop when regulatory T cells (Tregs) fail to control the balance between tolerance and immunity. Alternatively, activated immune cells might prevent the induction or activation of Tregs in such diseases. In this study, we demonstrate that trans-signaling into T cells via the soluble IL-6 receptor completely abrogates the de novo induction of adaptive Tregs. Mechanistically, IL-6 trans-signaling augmented the expression of the TGF-beta signaling inhibitor SMAD7. Consequently, SMAD7 overexpression in T cells using newly created transgenic mice rendered CD4(+)CD25(-) T cells resistant to the induction of FoxP3. Finally, IL-6 trans-signaling inhibited Treg-mediated suppression in a murine model of colitis. In summary, IL-6 trans-signaling into T cells emerges as a key pathway for blockade of the development of adaptive Tregs and thus may play a pivotal role in shifting the balance between effector and regulatory T cell numbers in chronic inflammatory and autoimmune diseases.

Epithelial NEMO links innate immunity to chronic intestinal inflammation

Deregulation of intestinal immune responses seems to have a principal function in the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease. The gut epithelium is critically involved in the maintenance of intestinal immune homeostasis-acting as a physical barrier separating luminal bacteria and immune cells, and also expressing antimicrobial peptides. However, the molecular mechanisms that control this function of gut epithelial cells are poorly understood. Here we show that the transcription factor NF-kappaB, a master regulator of pro-inflammatory responses, functions in gut epithelial cells to control epithelial integrity and the interaction between the mucosal immune system and gut microflora. Intestinal epithelial-cell-specific inhibition of NF-kappaB through conditional ablation of NEMO (also called IkappaB kinase-gamma (IKKgamma)) or both IKK1 (IKKalpha) and IKK2 (IKKbeta)-IKK subunits essential for NF-kappaB activation-spontaneously caused severe chronic intestinal inflammation in mice. NF-kappaB deficiency led to apoptosis of colonic epithelial cells, impaired expression of antimicrobial peptides and translocation of bacteria into the mucosa. Concurrently, this epithelial defect triggered a chronic inflammatory response in the colon, initially dominated by innate immune cells but later also involving T lymphocytes. Deficiency of the gene encoding the adaptor protein MyD88 prevented the development of intestinal inflammation, demonstrating that Toll-like receptor activation by intestinal bacteria is essential for disease pathogenesis in this mouse model. Furthermore, NEMO deficiency sensitized epithelial cells to tumour-necrosis factor (TNF)-induced apoptosis, whereas TNF receptor-1 inactivation inhibited intestinal inflammation, demonstrating that TNF receptor-1 signalling is crucial for disease induction. These findings demonstrate that a primary NF-kappaB signalling defect in intestinal epithelial cells disrupts immune homeostasis in the gastrointestinal tract, causing an inflammatory-bowel-disease-like phenotype. Our results identify NF-kappaB signalling in the gut epithelium as a critical regulator of epithelial integrity and intestinal immune homeostasis, and have important implications for understanding the mechanisms controlling the pathogenesis of human inflammatory bowel disease.

Cutting edge: IL-23 cross-regulates IL-12 production in T cell-dependent experimental colitis

Although IL-12 and IL-23 share the common p40 subunit, IL-23, rather than IL-12, seems to drive the pathogenesis of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis and arthritis, because IL-23/p19 knockout mice are protected from disease. In contrast, we describe in this study that newly created LacZ knockin mice deficient for IL-23 p19 were highly susceptible for the development of experimental T cell-mediated TNBS colitis and showed even more severe colitis than wild-type mice by endoscopic and histologic criteria. Subsequent studies revealed that dendritic cells from p19-deficient mice produce elevated levels of IL-12, and that IL-23 down-regulates IL-12 expression upon TLR ligation. Finally, in vivo blockade of IL-12 p40 in IL-23-deficient mice rescued mice from lethal colitis. Taken together, our data identify cross-regulation of IL-12 expression by IL-23 as novel key regulatory pathway during initiation of T cell dependent colitis.

Transforming growth factor beta induced FoxP3+ regulatory T cells suppress Th1 mediated experimental colitis

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

The imbalance between effector and regulatory T cells plays a central role in the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel diseases. In addition to the thymus, CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells can be induced in the periphery from a population of CD25- T cells by treatment with transforming growth factor beta (TGF-beta). Here, we analysed the in vivo function of TGF-beta induced regulatory T (Ti-Treg) cells in experimental colitis.

METHODS

Ti-Treg cells were generated in cell culture in the presence or absence of TGF-beta and tested for their regulatory potential in experimental colitis using the CD4+CD62L+ T cell transfer model.

RESULTS

Ti-Treg cells significantly suppressed Th1 mediated colitis on CD4+CD62L+ T cell transfer in vivo, as shown by high resolution endoscopy, histology, immunohistochemistry, and cytokine analysis. Further analysis of in vivo and in vitro expanded Ti-Treg cells showed that exogenous interleukin 2 (IL-2) was crucial for survival and expansion of these cells.

CONCLUSION

Our data suggest that regulatory Ti-Treg cells expand by TGF-beta and exogenous IL-2 derived from effector T cells at the site of inflammation. In addition to Tr1 and thymic CD4+CD25+ T cells, peripheral Ti-Treg cells emerge as a class of regulatory T cells with therapeutic potential in T cell mediated chronic intestinal inflammation.

In vivo imaging of colitis and colon cancer development in mice using high resolution chromoendoscopy

BACKGROUND

Mouse models of colitis and cancer are indispensable for our understanding of the pathogenesis of these diseases. In the past, mice had to be sacrificed in order to analyse colitis activity and tumour development. We have developed a safe method for high resolution endoscopic monitoring of living mice.

METHODS

Mice developing colitis or colonic tumours were anaesthetised using avertine and repeatedly examined by endoscopy. A novel miniendoscope (1.9 mm outer diameter), denoted Coloview, was introduced via the anus and the colon was carefully insufflated with an air pump before analysis of the colonic mucosa. An extra working channel allowed the introduction of biopsy forceps or injection needles as well as surface staining with methylene blue in order to visualise the surface of the crypts and the pit pattern architecture.

RESULTS

Endoscopic pictures obtained were of high quality and allowed monitoring and grading of disease. Scoring of colitis activity as well as tumour size and growth was possible. In addition, pit pattern analysis using chromoendoscopy permitted discrimination between inflammatory and neoplastic changes. Biopsies yielded enough tissue for molecular and histopathological analyses.

CONCLUSIONS

In summary, chromoendoscopy in mice allows monitoring of the development of colitis and colon cancer with high resolution. Manipulations such as local injection of reagents or taking biopsies can be performed easily.

IL-6 signaling promotes tumor growth in colorectal cancer

Recent investigations support an important role for TGF-beta in the development of colorectal cancer. However, the molecular consequences of TGF-beta signaling in the colon remains incompletely understood. In a recent study in Immunity, we analyzed the role of TGF-beta in a murine model of colon cancer. Using transgenic mice overexpressing TGF-beta or a dominant negative TGF-beta receptor II under control of the CD2 minigene, we show that TGF-beta signaling in tumor infiltrating T lymphocytes regulates the growth of dysplastic colon epithelial cells, as determined by histology and a novel system for high resolution chromoendoscopy in vivo. At the molecular level, TGF-beta signaling in T cells regulated STAT-3 activation in tumor cells via IL-6. IL-6 signaling required tumor cell derived soluble IL-6R rather than membrane bound IL-6R and suppression of such TGF-beta-dependent IL-6 trans-signaling prevented tumor progression in vivo. Similar to these observations in mice, here we show that human colon cancer tissue expressed only low amounts of membrane bound IL-6R. In contrast, expression and activity of the matrix metalloproteinase TACE were increased. In summary, our data provide novel insights into the role of TGF-beta signaling in colorectal cancer and suggest novel therapeutic approaches for colorectal cancer based on an inhibition of TGF-beta-dependent IL-6 trans-signaling.

IL-6 signaling promotes tumor growth in colorectal cancer

Recent investigations support an important role for TGF-beta in the development of colorectal cancer. However, the molecular consequences of TGF-beta signaling in the colon remains incompletely understood. In a recent study in Immunity, we analyzed the role of TGF-beta in a murine model of colon cancer. Using transgenic mice overexpressing TGF-beta or a dominant negative TGF-beta receptor II under control of the CD2 minigene, we show that TGF-beta signaling in tumor infiltrating T lymphocytes regulates the growth of dysplastic colon epithelial cells, as determined by histology and a novel system for high resolution chromoendoscopy in vivo. At the molecular level, TGF-beta signaling in T cells regulated STAT-3 activation in tumor cells via IL-6. IL-6 signaling required tumor cell derived soluble IL-6R rather than membrane bound IL-6R and suppression of such TGF-beta-dependent IL-6 trans-signaling prevented tumor progression in vivo. Similar to these observations in mice, here we show that human colon cancer tissue expressed only low amounts of membrane bound IL-6R. In contrast, expression and activity of the matrix metalloproteinase TACE were increased. In summary, our data provide novel insights into the role of TGF-beta signaling in colorectal cancer and suggest novel therapeutic approaches for colorectal cancer based on an inhibition of TGF-beta-dependent IL-6 trans-signaling.

TGF-beta suppresses tumor progression in colon cancer by inhibition of IL-6 trans-signaling

Alterations of TGF-beta signaling have been described in colorectal cancer, although the molecular consequences are largely unknown. By using transgenic mice overexpressing TGF-beta or a dominant-negative TGF-betaRII, we demonstrate that TGF-beta signaling in tumor infiltrating T lymphocytes controls the growth of dysplastic epithelial cells in experimental colorectal cancer, as determined by histology and a novel system for high-resolution chromoendoscopy. At the molecular level, TGF-beta signaling in T cells regulated STAT-3 activation in tumor cells via IL-6. IL-6 signaling required tumor cell-derived soluble IL-6R rather than membrane bound IL-6R and suppression of such TGF-beta-dependent IL-6 trans-signaling prevented tumor progression in vivo. Taken together, our data provide novel insights into TGF-beta signaling in colorectal cancer and suggest novel therapeutic approaches for colorectal cancer based on inhibition of TGF-beta-dependent IL-6 trans-signaling.

Detection of abundantly transcribed genes and gene translocation in human immunodeficiency virus-associated non-Hodgkin's lymphoma

Several novel, differentially transcribed genes were identified in one centroblastic and one immunoblastic HIV-associated B-cell non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (B-NHL) by subtractive cloning. In both lymphomas, we detected an upregulated transcription of several mitochondrial genes. In the centroblastic B-NHL, we found a high level transcription of nuclear genes including the interferon-inducible gene (INF-ind), the immunoglobulin light chain gene (IgL), the set oncogene, and several unknown genes. The data obtained on upregulated expression of the genes in human B-NHL of HIV-infected patients considerably overlap with those obtained earlier for the B-NHL of simian immunodeficiency virus-infected monkeys. In the centroblastic lymphoma, one transcript revealed a fusion of the 3'-untranslated region of the set gene and the C-terminal region of the IgL gene. This chimeric sequence was confirmed by a site-directed polymerase chain reaction performed with total cDNA and genomic DNA. The expected amplification product was obtained in both cases pointing to a genomic rearrangement. The IgL-set fusion sequence was not found in cDNA preparations and genomic DNA of the immunoblastic HIV-associated B-NHL. Further studies are necessary to determine whether these genes contribute to lymphoma development or can be used as therapeutic targets.

Plasma membrane calcium channels in human carcinoma A431 cells are functionally coupled to inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor-phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate complexes

In most nonexcitable cells, calcium (Ca(2+)) release from inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (InsP(3))-sensitive intracellular Ca(2+) stores is coupled to Ca(2+) influx (calcium release-activated channels (I(CRAC))) pathway. Despite intense investigation, the molecular identity of I(CRAC) and the mechanism of its activation remain poorly understood. InsP(3)-dependent miniature calcium channels (I(min)) display functional properties characteristic for I(CRAC). Here we used patch clamp recordings of I(min) channels in human carcinoma A431 cells to demonstrate that I(min) activity was greatly enchanced in the presence of anti-phosphatidylinositol 4, 5-bisphosphate antibody (PIP(2)Ab) and diminished in the presence of PIP(2). Anti-PIP(2) antibody induced a greater than 6-fold increase in I(min) sensitivity for InsP(3) activation and an almost 4-fold change in I(min) maximal open probability. The addition of exogenous PIP(2) vesicles to the cytosolic surface of inside-out patches inhibited I(min) activity. These results lead us to propose an existence of a Ca(2+) influx pathway in nonexcitable cells activated via direct conformational coupling with a selected population of InsP(3) receptors, located just underneath the plasma membrane and coupled to PIP(2). The described pathway provides for a highly compartmentalized Ca(2+) influx and intracellular Ca(2+) store refilling mechanism.

Complexity of electrocortical dynamics in children: developmental aspects

Dimensional complexity (DCx) is an EEG measure derived from nonlinear systems theory that can be indicative of the global dynamical complexity of electrocortical activity. This study examined developmental changes in DCx, as well as the effects of cognitive tasks, gender, and brain topography, and compared DCx with traditional spectral power measures. EEG was recorded in three groups of children at mean age of 7.5 (n = 37), 13.8 (n = 42), and 16.4 (n = 56) years at rest and during the performance of verbal and spatial cognitive tasks. DCx measured both at rest and during tasks increased with age. Specific effects of brain topography, condition, and gender became stronger with age, suggesting an increase in structural and functional differentiation of the cortex. Hemispheric asymmetry of DCx recorded during tasks also increased with age, with the task-induced DCx reduction being stronger in the left hemisphere. Gender differences in DCx suggested faster cerebral maturation in girls over late adolescence. Relationships between DCx and spectral power varied as a function of tasks and scalp locations, suggesting that these EEG measures can reflect different aspects of cortical functioning.