Transduction and apoptosis induction in the rat prostate, using adenovirus vectors

Proapoptotic adenovirus vectors offer great promise for the treatment of cancer and nonmalignant conditions. Benign prostate hyperplasia (BPH) is a common nonmalignant enlargement of the prostate that involves epithelial, stromal, and smooth muscle components of the gland. We tested the hypothesis that an adenovirus vector expressing Fas ligand can be used to induce apoptosis in the prostate. We analyzed the efficiency of transduction and apoptosis induction in primary cultures of human prostate cells after adenovirus-mediated gene transfer. Efficient transduction was observed in primary prostate epithelial cells. Stromal and smooth muscle cells were more difficult to transduce, as no coxsackie-adenovirus receptor (CAR) expression was detectable on these cells. However, transduction was achieved in these cells when the multiplicity of infection was increased to 100 focal-forming units per cell, or when the vectors were delivered as calcium phosphate precipitates. Infection of all three primary prostate cell types with an adenovirus vector that expresses Fas ligand (AdFasL/G) resulted in rapid apoptosis. Direct injection of the rat prostate with an adenovirus vector carrying luciferase resulted in substantial luciferase expression. TUNEL analysis demonstrated that AdFasL/G administration induced low-level apoptosis in prostatic epithelial cells throughout the gland. As a first step toward enhancing the efficiency of prostate transduction in vivo, we tested an adenovirus vector that was engineered to have an expanded tropism. This vector, AdZ.F2K(pK7), was 10- to 500-fold more efficient than unmodified vectors in transducing prostate epithelial, smooth muscle, and stromal cells in culture. Moreover, AdZ.F2K(pK7) was more efficient than an unmodified vector at transducing the rat prostate in vivo, although the effect was dose dependent.

Functional preference of the constituent amino acid residues in a phage-library-based nonphosphorylated inhibitor of the Grb2-SH2 domain

A nonphosphorylated disulfide-bridged peptide, cyclo(Cys-Glu1-Leu-Tyr-Glu-Asn-Val-Gly-Met-Tyr9-Cys)-amide (termed G1) has been identified, by phage library, that binds to the Grb2-SH2 domain but not the src SH2 domain. Synthetic G1 blocks the Grb2-SH2 domain association (IC50 of 15.5 microM) with natural phosphopeptide ligands. As a new structural motif that binds to the Grb2-SH2 domain in a pTyr-independent manner, the binding affinity of G1 is contributed by the highly favored interactions of its structural elements interacting with the binding pocket of the protein. These interactions involve side-chains of amino acids Glu1, Tyr3, Glu4, Asn5, and Met8. Also a specific conformation is required for the cyclic peptide when bound to the protein. Ala scanning within G1 and molecular modeling analysis suggest a promising model in which G1 peptide binds in the phosphotyrosine binding site of the Grb2-SH2 domain in a beta-turn-like conformation. Replacement of Tyr3 or Asn5 with Ala abrogates the inhibitory activity of the peptide, indicating that G1 requires a Y-X-N consensus sequence similar to that found in natural pTyr-containing ligands, but without Tyr phosphorylation. Significantly, the Ala mutant of Glu1, i.e. the amino acid N-terminal to Y3, remarkably reduces the binding affinity. The position of the Glu1 side-chain is confirmed to provide a complementary role for pTyr3, as demonstrated by the low micromolar inhibitory activity (IC50 = 1.02 microM) of the nonphosphorylated peptide 11, G1(Gla1), in which Glu1 was replaced by gamma-carboxy-glutamic acid (Gla).

Prostate biopsy grading errors: a sampling problem?

Potential reasons for discordance between the Gleason score in biopsies and surgical specimens are: 1) pathological interpretation bias, and 2) sampling effects. The importance of sampling effects in grading errors was examined in a series where the number of biopsy cores obtained was high. Biopsies were obtained using a technique whereby 18 directed cores were systematically obtained and mapped out within the gland. Gleason scores from biopsies and matched prostatectomy specimens were compared among 28 consecutive patients with localized prostate cancer. A pooled database from 10 series (n = 2,687) served as a baseline for comparison in the accuracy of Gleason score grading. With the present biopsy technique, an exact Gleason score match was achieved in 57% of cases, compared with the pooled database (PD) mean of 42% (P = 0.055), and was within 1 point in 93% of cases compared with 78% (PD) (P = 0.029). Upgrading of biopsies was seen in 35% of cases, compared with 43% (PD) (P = 0.19). With respect to Gleason score 7, an exact match was present in 78% of cases, compared with 63% (PD) (P = 0.17), and upgrading was 0%, compared with 20% (PD) (P = 0.07). The data suggest a significant reduction in grade errors by minimizing sampling effects, one that it is of the same order of magnitude as the reduction achieved from consensus pathologic evaluation. In our study, seven patients (25%) would have had their cancers missed altogether with sextant biopsies. Sampling effects may contribute significantly to grading errors in prostate needle biopsies, although a larger study is needed to confirm this. A methodology which adopts a higher number of cores combined with a consensus pathologic evaluation could potentially reduce grading errors substantially. The optimal number of cores remains to be determined in a larger study. Int. J. Cancer (Radiat. Oncol. Invest.) 90, 326-330 (2000).

Patterns of prostate cancer biopsy grading: trends and clinical implications

The predictive value of Gleason grading from prostate needle biopsy was examined and the patterns of grade discordance with surgical specimens are discussed in terms of their clinical implications. Gleason scores from biopsy and matched radical prostatectomy specimens were compared in 428 consecutive patients. Patterns of concordance were examined with respect to numerical agreement as well as to whether differences result in a change in group assignment with respect to Gleason score group 2-4, 5-6, 7, and 8-10. The coefficient of agreement, kappa, and accuracy were used to measure predictive value. An exact Gleason score match was present in 41% of the cases, while 48% were undergraded and 17% overgraded. With respect to group assignment, 51% remained unchanged while 35% were undergraded and 14% overgraded. Kappa analysis yielded a value of 0.26, which represents a poor agreement beyond chance. A Gleason score of 5-6, 7, or 8 was reproduced in 52%, 53%, and 58% of cases, respectively. A systematic bias toward progressive undergrading of more well-differentiated cancers and overgrading of more poorly differentiated cancers on biopsy is suggested by the data. A pooled analysis with nine additional series (n = 2,687) confirms this conclusion. No correlation was found between the amount of tumor in the biopsy specimen and grade discordance. Biases in pathologic interpretation and sampling effects are suggested as responsible for grade discordance. Predictable differences exist between the histologic grade in prostate needle biopsies and the surgical specimen. Clinical staging of organ-confined prostate cancer should include the likelihood of histologic upgrading or downgrading when used to stratify patients for clinical trials, in comparing results among therapies based on biopsy grading and when recommending a radical therapy. Developing a methodology which reduces both sampling effects and pathologic interpretation bias would likely result in significantly improved accuracy of Gleason grading of prostate biopsies. Int. J. Cancer (Radiat. Oncol. Invest.) 90, 305-311 (2000).

Immunoconjugates of geldanamycin and anti-HER2 monoclonal antibodies: antiproliferative activity on human breast carcinoma cell lines

BACKGROUND

HER2 is a membrane receptor whose overexpression is strongly associated with poor prognosis in breast carcinomas. Inhibition of HER2 activity can reduce tumor growth, which led to the development of Herceptin, an anti-HER2 monoclonal antibody (MAb) that is already in clinical use. However, the objective response rate to Herceptin monotherapy is quite low. HER2 activity can also be inhibited by the highly cytotoxic antibiotic geldanamycin (GA). However, GA is not used clinically because of its adverse toxicity. Our purpose was to enhance the inhibitory activity of anti-HER2 MAb by coupling it to GA.

METHODS

We synthesized 17-(3-aminopropylamino)GA (17-APA-GA) and conjugated it to the anti-HER2 MAb e21, to form e21 : GA. The noninternalizing anti-HER2 MAb AE1 was used as a control. Internalization assays and western blot analyses were used to determine whether the anti-HER2 MAbs and their immunoconjugates were internalized into HER2-expressing cells and reduced HER2 levels. All statistical tests were two-sided.

RESULTS

The immunoconjugate e21 : GA inhibited the proliferation of HER2-overexpressing cell lines better than unconjugated e21 (concentration required for 50% inhibition = 40 versus 1650 microg/mL, respectively). At 15 microg/mL, e21 : GA reduced HER2 levels by 86% within 16 hours, whereas unconjugated e21, 17-APA-GA, or AE1 : GA reduced HER2 levels by only 20%. These effects were not caused by release of 17-APA-GA from the immunoconjugate because immunoconjugates containing [(3)H]GA were stable in serum at 37 degrees C. Furthermore, e21 : GA did not significantly inhibit proliferation of the adult T-cell leukemia cell line HuT102, which is HER2 negative yet highly sensitive to GA.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that conjugating GA to internalizing MAbs enhances the inhibitory effect of the MAbs. This approach might also be applied in cellular targeting via growth factors and may be of clinical interest.

PSA based review of adjuvant and salvage radiation therapy vs. observation in postoperative prostate cancer patients

Because of the uncertainties regarding the efficacy of postoperative radiation therapy for early prostate cancer, treatment strategies following radical prostatectomy include: (1) observation alone in high-risk patients, (2) adjuvant radiation therapy (PSA undetectable) in high-risk patients, or (3) salvage radiation therapy for biochemical and clinical recurrence. Fifty-two patients treated with postoperative radiation therapy in either an adjuvant setting (13) or for salvage (39) were retrospectively reviewed. The actuarial biochemical disease-free survival (bNED) rates following radiation therapy were calculated using the life-table method. Univariate and multi variate analyses were used to define the clinical factors that predict biochemical failure following postoperative radiation therapy. In addition, the bNED survival rate for 36 high-risk surgery patients who were simply observed following prostatectomy was determined. The 3-year bNED survival rate for the adjuvant radiation group was 85% compared with 27% for salvage radiation and 43% for the observation group. These results are statistically significant. Factors that predict biochemical failure following postoperative radiation therapy include preoperative PSA level, pre-radiation therapy PSA level, and seminal vesicle involvement. At our institutions, adjuvant radiation therapy was a superior strategy compared with either observation alone or salvage radiation therapy for high-risk postoperative prostate cancer patients. Int. J. Cancer (Radiat. Oncol. Invest.) 90, 29-36 (2000).

Optimal radiotherapy for prostate cancer: predictions for conventional external beam, IMRT, and brachytherapy from radiobiologic models

PURPOSE

To determine, on the basis of radiobiological models, optimal modalities of radiotherapy for localized prostate cancer, and to provide a rational basis for therapeutic decisions.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

An algorithm based on extensions to the linear-quadratic (LQ) cell survival model is constructed for fractionated and protracted irradiation. These radiobiological models include prostate tumor cell line-derived LQ parameters, clonogen repopulation, repair of sublethal damage, hypoxia, and radioisotope decay. In addition, dose inhomogeneities for both IMRT and brachytherapy (125I and 103Pd) from patient-derived Dose Volume Histograms (DVH), as well as dose escalation, are incorporated. Three risk groups are defined in terms of sets of biologic parameters tailored to correspond to clinical risk groups as follows: Favorable-iPSA <10 and bGS < or =6 and stage T2; Intermediate-one parameter increased; and Unfavorable-two or more parameters increased. Tumor control probabilities (TCP) are predicted for conventional external beam radiotherapy (EBRT, including 3D-CRT), intensity modulated radiotherapy (IMRT), and permanent brachytherapy.

RESULTS

Brachytherapy is less susceptible to variations in alpha/beta than EBRT and more susceptible to variations in clonogen potential doubling time (Tp). Our models predict TCP consistent with the bNED results from recent dose escalation trials and long-term outcomes from brachytherapy. TCP from IMRT are systematically superior to those from conventional fractionated RT, and suggests its possible use in dose escalation without additional dose to surrounding normal tissues. For potentially rapidly dividing tumors (Tp < 30 days) 103Pd yields superior cell kill compared with 125I, but for very slowly proliferating tumors the converse is suggested. Brachytherapy predicts equivalent or superior TCP to dose escalated EBRT. For unfavorable risk tumors, combined 45 Gy EBRT+brachytherapy boost predicts superior TCP than with either modality alone.

CONCLUSIONS

The radiobiological models presented suggest a rational basis for choosing among several radiotherapeutic modalities based on biologic risk factors. In addition, they suggest that IMRT may potentially be superior to 3D-CRT in allowing dose escalation without increased morbidity, and that brachytherapy, as monotherapy or as boost, may achieve superior tumor control compared with dose escalation 3D-CRT. The latter conclusion is supported by clinical data.

Structural requirements for Tyr in the consensus sequence Y-E-N of a novel nonphosphorylated inhibitor to the Grb2-SH2 domain

The phage library derived, nonphosphorylated and thioether-cyclized peptide, termed G1TE, cyclo(CH(2)CO-Glu(1)-Leu-Tyr(3)-Glu-Asn-Val-Gly-Met-Tyr-Cys(10))-amid e, represents a new structural motif that binds to the Grb2-SH2 domain in a pTyr-independent manner, with an IC(50) of 20 microM. The retention of binding affinity is very sensitive with respect to peptide ring-size alterations and Ala mutations. We demonstrated previously that the Glu(1) side chain and its closely related analogs partially compensate for the absence of the phosphate functionality on Tyr(3), and, based on molecular modeling, these acidic side-chains complex with the Arg67 and Arg86 side-chains of the protein in the binding cavity. In this study we judiciously altered and incorporated various natural and unnatural amino acids as Tyr replacements within the -YEN- motif, and we demonstrate the functional importance and structural requirement of Tyr(3) for effective binding of this novel non-phosphorylated ligand to the Grb2-SH2 domain. The phenyl side-chain moiety and a polar functional group with specific orientation in position Y(3) of the peptide are particularly required. Using SPR binding assays, a submicromolar inhibitor (IC(50) = 0.70 microM) was obtained when Glu(1) was replaced with alpha-aminoadipate and Tyr(3) was replaced with 4-carboxymethyl-Phe, providing peptide 14, G1TE(Adi(1), cmPhe(3)). Peptide 14 also inhibited Grb2/p185(erb)(B-2) protein association in cell homogenates of erbB-2-overexpressing MDA-MA-453 cancer cells at near one micromolar concentrations.

Significant compensatory role of position Y-2 conferring high affinity to non-phosphorylated inhibitors of Grb2-SH2 domain

Systematic modification of amino acid at position Y-2 of a library-derived non-phosporylated thioether-cyclized peptide, cyclo(CH2CO-Glu2-Leu-Tyr0-Glu-Asn-Val-Gly-Met-Tyr-Cys) -amide, aided by molecular modeling, demonstrates that the Glu(-2) sidechain compensates for the absence of Tyr0 phosphorylation in retaining effective binding to Grb2-SH2 domain. Replacement of Glu(-2) with gamma-carboxyglutamic acid produced a high affinity inhibitor, the first example with submicromolar affinity (IC50 = 640 nM).

Monocarboxylic-based phosphotyrosyl mimetics in the design of GRB2 SH2 domain inhibitors

Three monocarboxylic-containing analogues, O-carboxymethyltyrosine (cmT, 5), 4-(carboxymethyl)phenylalanine (cmF, 6), and 4-(carboxydifluoromethyl)phenylalanine (F2cmF, 7) were utilized as phosphotyrosyl (pTyr) replacements in a high affinity B-bend mimicking platform, where they exhibited IC50 values of 2.5 microM, 65 microM and 28 microM, respectively, in a Grb2 SH2 domain Biacore binding assay. When a terminal N(alpha)-oxalyl axillary was utilized to enhance ligand interactions with a critical SH2 domain Arg67 residue (alphaA-helix), binding potencies increased from 4- to 10-fold, resulting in submicromolar affinity for cmF (IC50 = 0.6 microM) and low micromolar affinity for F2cmF (IC50 = 2 microM). Cell lysate binding studies also showed inhibition of cognate Grb2 binding to the p185erbB-2 phosphoprotein in the same rank order of potency as observed in the Biacore assay. These results indicate the potential value of cmF and F2cmF residues as pTyr mimetics for the study of Grb2 SH2 domains and suggest new strategies for improvements in inhibitor design.

Potent inhibition of Grb2 SH2 domain binding by non-phosphate-containing ligands

Development of Grb2 Src homology 2 (SH2) domain binding inhibitors has important implications for treatment of a variety of diseases, including several cancers. In cellular studies, inhibitors of Grb2 SH2 domain binding have to date been large, highly charged peptides which relied on special transport devices for cell membrane penetration. Work presented in the current study examines a variety of pTyr mimetics in the context of a high-affinity Grb2 binding platform. Among the analogues studied are new non-phosphorus-containing pTyr mimetics 23a and 23b which, when incorporated into tripeptide structures 18f and 20f, are able to inhibit Grb2 SH2 domain binding with affinities among the best yet reported for non-phosphorus-containing SH2 domain inhibitors (IC50 values of 6.7 and 1.3 microM, respectively). The present study has also demonstrated the usefulness of the Nalpha-oxalyl group as an auxiliary which enhances the binding potency of both phosphorus- and non-phosphorus-containing pTyr mimetics. When combined with the (phosphonomethyl)phenylalanine (Pmp) residue to give analogues such as L-20d, potent inhibition of Grb2 SH2 domain binding can be achieved both in extracellular assays using isolated Grb2 SH2 domain protein and in intracellular systems measuring the association of endogenous Grb2 with its cognate p185erbB-2 ligand. These latter effects can be achieved at micromolar to submicromolar concentrations without prodrug derivatization. The oxalyl-containing pTyr mimetics presented in this study should be of general usefulness for the development of other Grb2 SH2 domain antagonists, independent of the beta-bend-mimicking platform utilized for their display.

Improving oncology nursing practice through understanding and exploring the Internet

PURPOSE/OBJECTIVES

To provide an overview of the evolution of computer technology, a brief history of the Internet, and guidelines for searching the Internet.

DATA SOURCES

Literature, electronic online sources, and personal experience.

DATA SYNTHESIS

Vast collections of resources are available on the Internet that can enhance many aspects of oncology nursing practice. These resources are stored on computers, rarely published as print documents, and only available to those oncology nurses who learn to navigate the Internet.

IMPLICATIONS FOR NURSING PRACTICE

Specific Internet-based oncology nursing resources can enhance clinical practice, improve education, and facilitate oncology nursing research.

CONCLUSIONS

Because a significant number of valuable resources are available on the Internet, it is critical that oncology nurses understand it, be aware of the resources, and have the skills to access the appropriate information.

NRG-3 in human breast cancers: activation of multiple erbB family proteins

Ligands of the EGF/Heregulin family control the growth of epithelial cells by binding to receptors of the erbB family. By searching a large database of cDNA sequences at Human Genome Sciences Inc. we have identified a new encoded protein sequence containing all the conserved elements of the EGF/Heregulin family. The same sequence has recently been independently identified as NRG-3. The EGF-like domain of NRG-3 was generated as a recombinant protein in E. coli and used to test the specificity of receptor binding. In human breast cancer cells and in 32D cells transfected by erbB family members, NRG-3 activated multiple erbB family members. These include EGF receptor (erbB1) and erbB4 when expressed individually and erbB2 and erbB3 when expressed together. Recombinant NRG-3 altered the growth of human breast cancer cells growing in vitro. NRG-3 was expressed in cell lines derived from breast cancer. These results indicate that NRG-3 is a potential regulator of normal and malignant breast epithelial cells in vivo.

The impact of the national information infrastructure on distance education and the changing role of the nurse

PURPOSE/OBJECTIVES

To describe a new opportunity for learning--distance education--that is available to oncology nurses and the role of the nurse educator in the distance-learning environment.

DATA SOURCES

Literature and electronic information.

DATA SYNTHESIS

Distance learning is a new option for oncology nurses that is based on the assumption that the student is motivated to grasp new ideas and will pursue studies with autonomy and honesty. This article reviews the principals of distance learning, its advantages, and the role of the nurse educator in this new learning environment.

CONCLUSIONS

Electronic networks are providing oncology nurses with the opportunity to share information and collaborate with colleagues throughout the world. This same technology supports the opportunity for distance education. Oncology nurses have numerous opportunities to participate in distance learning, both as learners and as nurse educators, and the advantages of this new learning environment are numerous.

IMPLICATIONS FOR NURSING PRACTICE

Opportunities now exist for formal education (both undergraduate and graduate) and continuing education for oncology nurses via distance learning. Oncology nurses need to treat technology as a friend and use distance learning to cultivate life-long learning.

Nonphosphorylated peptide ligands for the Grb2 Src homology 2 domain

Critical intracellular signals in normal and malignant cells are transmitted by the adaptor protein Grb2 by means of its Src homology 2 (SH2) domain, which binds to phosphotyrosyl (pTyr) residues generated by the activation of tyrosine kinases. To understand this important control point and to design inhibitors, previous investigations have focused on the molecular mechanisms by which the Grb2 SH2 domain selectively binds pTyr containing peptides. In the current study, we demonstrate that the Grb2 SH2 domain can also bind in a pTyr independent manner. Using phage display, an 11-amino acid cyclic peptide, G1, has been identified that binds to the Grb2 SH2 domain but not the src SH2 domain. Synthetic G1 peptide blocks Grb2 SH2 domain association (IC50 10-25 microM) with a 9-amino acid pTyr-containing peptide derived from the SHC protein (pTyr317). These data and amino acid substitution analysis indicate that G1 interacts in the phosphopeptide binding site. G1 peptide requires a YXN sequence similar to that found in natural pTyr-containing ligands, and phosphorylation of the tyrosine increases G1 inhibitory activity. G1 also requires an internal disulfide bond to maintain the active binding conformation. Since the G1 peptide does not contain pTyr, it defines a new type of SH2 domain binding motif that may advance the design of Grb2 antagonists.

Nonpharmacologic management of chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting

PURPOSE/OBJECTIVES

To review the nonpharmacologic interventions indicated to prevent or control chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting.

DATA SOURCES

Journal articles.

DATA SYNTHESIS

Despite improvements in antiemetic drug therapy, as many as 60% of patients with cancer who are treated with antineoplastic agents experience nausea and vomiting. Anticipatory nausea and vomiting are thought to be caused by the behavioral process of classical conditioning. Most nonpharmacologic interventions that are used to prevent or control nausea and vomiting in patients with cancer are classified as behavioral interventions. Behavioral interventions involve the acquisition of adaptive behavioral skills to interrupt the conditioning cycle.

CONCLUSIONS

Nonpharmacologic interventions appear to be effective in reducing anticipatory and post-treatment nausea and vomiting.

IMPLICATIONS FOR NURSING PRACTICE

These behavioral interventions can be effective in reducing anticipatory and post-treatment nausea and vomiting. Oncology nurses must learn these nonpharmacologic techniques and teach their patients to use them in combination with their prescribed antiemetic therapy.

Multiple Grb2-protein complexes in human cancer cells

Grb2 is an SH2/SH3 domain-containing adaptor protein that links receptor tyrosine kinases to the ras signaling pathway. The Grb2-SH2 domain binds phosphotyrosine sequences on activated tyrosine kinases, and one target of the SH3 domains is the ras-nucleotide-exchange factor Sos1. We have examined Grb2-protein interactions in human cancer cells that over-express the receptor tyrosine kinase erbB2. Our results show that the 2 Grb2-SH3 domains complex with Sos1, dynamin and at least 4 other proteins (p228, p140, p55, p28) in these cells. The 2 Grb2-SH3 domains bind these proteins differently, with the N-terminal SH3 domain interacting preferentially with p228, Sos1, p140 and dynamin. The C-terminal SH3 domain has higher affinity toward p28. The Grb2-SH3 domain interactions appear to be similar in erbB2 over-expressing breast, ovarian and lung cancer cells. Also, the major tyrosine-phosphorylated proteins that associate with Grb2 in erbB2 over-expressing cancer cells appear to be erbB2 and Shc. The multiple Grb2-SH3 domain interactions in these cells may mediate novel cellular functions.

Potent antitumour activity of a new class of tumour-specific killer cells

Two approaches to the antibody-directed targeting of toxic or cytolytic activity and augmentation of cellular immune responses have been explored for tumour immunotherapy, but so far success has been limited. Obstacles facing immunotherapy are the limited accessibility of antibodies or antibody conjugates to solid tumours and the difficulty in obtaining tumour-specific cytotoxic lymphocytes. Here we generate a new class of tumour-specific killer cells by genetically modifying lymphocytes to produce and secrete a targeted toxin against an oncoprotein overexpressed on breast and other tumour cells. The transduced lymphocytes were shown to have potent and selective cytotoxicity to tumours in culture and nude mouse models. The potent in vivo antitumour activity is probably a result of the migration of the lymphocytes to tumours as a targeted toxin carrier, and production and accumulation of the targeted toxins inside tumours as a producer. Our approach, which has features of both antibody-directed and cell-mediated immunotherapy, may have application in a gene therapy context.

Peer review, authorship, ethics, and conflict of interest

PURPOSE

To explore problems in peer review, authorship, ethics, and conflict of interest related to writing and publishing. Publishing and adhering to principles is critical as nurse researchers, educators, administrators, and practitioners participate in the development and dissemination of knowledge.

CONCLUSIONS

The quality and integrity of nursing publications are affected by peer review, author collaboration, and ethical conduct. Understanding the conflicts of interest inherent in each action and being committed to impartial review and meeting the requirements of authorship can ensure fewer difficulties for authors, publishers, and consumers.

Quality of life and the cancer experience: the state-of-the-knowledge

PURPOSE/OBJECTIVES

To address the state-of-the-knowledge concerning quality of life (QOL) issues and the cancer experience from theoretical, research, clinical, and educational perspectives.

DATA SOURCES

Published books and articles and a panel of experienced QOL experts who convened at the Oncology Nursing Society's State-of-the-knowledge Conference on Quality of Life in February 1995.

DATA SYNTHESIS

Despite the evolution and support of QOL in oncology nursing practice, education, and research, there remains gaps in theory, research, and practice related to QOL. This article explores these gaps in knowledge and recommends future directions for QOL theory, research, education, and practice.

CONCLUSIONS

Further conceptual work and resolution of QOL methodologic issues to guide clinical practice and education are warranted. The impact of cultural variables and precancer life experiences on patients' perceptions of QOL also must be addressed.

NURSING IMPLICATIONS

Oncology nurse clinicians, educators, and researchers must continue to work collaboratively to enhance the knowledge base regarding QOL and to improve the nursing care provided to individuals with cancer.