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Soekmadji C, Corcoran NM, Oleinikova I, Jovanovic L, Ramm GA, Nelson CC, Jenster G, Russell PJ. Extracellular vesicles for personalized therapy decision support in advanced metastatic cancers and its potential impact for prostate cancer. Prostate 2017; 77:1416-1423. [PMID: 28856701 DOI: 10.1002/pros.23403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2017] [Accepted: 08/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The use of circulating tumor cells (CTCs) and circulating extracellular vesicles (EVs), such as exosomes, as liquid biopsy-derived biomarkers for cancers have been investigated. CTC enumeration using the CellSearch based platform provides an accurate insight on overall survival where higher CTC counts indicate poor prognosis for patients with advanced metastatic cancer. EVs provide information based on their lipid, protein, and nucleic acid content and can be isolated from biofluids and analyzed from a relatively small volume, providing a routine and non-invasive modality to monitor disease progression. Our pilot experiment by assessing the level of two subpopulations of small EVs, the CD9 positive and CD63 positive EVs, showed that the CD9 positive EV level is higher in plasma from patients with advanced metastatic prostate cancer with detectable CTCs. These data show the potential utility of a particular EV subpopulation to serve as biomarkers for advanced metastatic prostate cancer. EVs can potentially be utilized as biomarkers to provide accurate genotypic and phenotypic information for advanced prostate cancer, where new strategies to design a more personalized therapy is currently the focus of considerable investigation.
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Evans JC, Malhotra M, Sweeney K, Darcy R, Nelson CC, Hollier BG, O'Driscoll CM. Folate-targeted amphiphilic cyclodextrin nanoparticles incorporating a fusogenic peptide deliver therapeutic siRNA and inhibit the invasive capacity of 3D prostate cancer tumours. Int J Pharm 2017; 532:511-518. [PMID: 28916296 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2017.09.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2017] [Revised: 09/05/2017] [Accepted: 09/07/2017] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
The main barrier to the development of an effective RNA interference (RNAi) therapy is the lack of a suitable delivery vector. Modified cyclodextrins have emerged in recent years for the delivery of siRNA. In the present study, a folate-targeted amphiphilic cyclodextrin was formulated using DSPE-PEG5000-folate to target prostate cancer cells. The fusogenic peptide GALA was included in the formulation to aid in the endosomal release of siRNA. Targeted nanoparticles were less than 200nm in size with a neutral surface charge. The complexes were able to bind siRNA and protect it from serum nucleases. Incubation with excess free folate resulted in a significant decrease in the uptake of targeted nanoparticles in LNCaP and PC3 cells, both of which have been reported to have differing pathways of folate uptake. There was a significant reduction in the therapeutic targets, ZEB1 and NRP1 at mRNA and protein level following treatment with targeted complexes. In preliminary functional assays using 3D spheroids, treatment of PC3 tumours with targeted complexes with ZEB1 and NRP1 siRNA resulted in more compact colonies relative to the untargeted controls and inhibited infiltration into the Matrigel™ layer.
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Thomas PB, Jeffery PL, Whiteside E, Walpole C, Maugham M, Jovanovic L, Gunter JH, Nelson CC, Herington AC, Veedu R, Chopin LK, Seim I. Abstract 3442: The long non-coding RNA GHSROS mediates expression of genes associated with tumor growth, metastasis and adverse disease outcome. Cancer Res 2017. [DOI: 10.1158/1538-7445.am2017-3442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) play key regulatory roles in cancer progression and are emerging therapeutic targets. The objective of this study was to investigate the expression and function of the lncRNA GHSROS in prostate cancer. Quantitative RT-PCR revealed that GHSROS is highly expressed in a subset of prostate cancers (Gleason score 8-10; z-score >1; Mann-Whitney-Wilcoxon test P=0.0021). Forced overexpression of the lncRNA stimulated cell migration in vitro in the PC3 (1.82 ± 0.35, P=0.006; Student’s t-test), DU145 (1.94 ± 0.34, P=0.017), and LNCaP (1.27 ± 0.02, P=0.0002) prostate cancer cell lines. Cell proliferation was increased in GHSROS overexpressing PC3 (3.36 ± 1.91, P=0.029), DU145 (1.749 ± 0.59, P=0.026), and LNCaP (1.39 ± 0.26, P=0.040) prostate cancer cell lines. These results were recapitulated in NOD/SCID mice, with increased tumor growth and Ki67 immunohistochemical staining in PC3 (P=0.0040) and DU145 (P = 0.036) xenografts overexpressing the lncRNA.High-throughput transcriptome sequencing (RNA-seq) identified 400 differentially expressed genes in GHSROS overexpressing PC3 cells, with enrichment of genes associated with motility, migration and regulation of cell growth. Further interrogation of the 400 gene set using Oncomine concept mapping, and interrogation of publicly-available clinical prostate cancer data sets, revealed a 34-gene signature associated with poorer disease outcome and metastatic progression. Preliminary analysis of The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) data, suggest that the signature has potential as a prognostic indicator for disease free- or overall survival in numerous cancers. Finally, locked antisense oligonucleotide (LNA-ASO) inhibition of endogenous GHSROS reciprocally regulated cell growth (Student’s t-test; RNV124: -1.14 ± 0.06, P=0.049 and RNV104L: -1.18 ± 0.05, P=0.030, migration (RNV124: -1.96 ± 0.11, P=0.004) and gene expression changes, supporting the observations from forced GHSROS overexpression experiments.In summary, we provide evidence that GHSROS is a prostate cancer associated lncRNA that promotes a gene expression signature which enhances the propensity for metastasis and adverse disease outcomes. We also demonstrate that GHSROS can be targeted using antisense oligonucleotides. Further studies on this lncRNA may provide new prognostic and therapeutic opportunities.
Citation Format: Patrick B. Thomas, Penny L. Jeffery, Eliza Whiteside, Carina Walpole, Michelle Maugham, Lidija Jovanovic, Jennifer H. Gunter, Colleen C. Nelson, Adrian C. Herington, Rakesh Veedu, Lisa K. Chopin, Inge Seim. The long non-coding RNA GHSROS mediates expression of genes associated with tumor growth, metastasis and adverse disease outcome [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2017; 2017 Apr 1-5; Washington, DC. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2017;77(13 Suppl):Abstract nr 3442. doi:10.1158/1538-7445.AM2017-3442
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Maugham ML, Thomas PB, Crisp GJ, Philp LK, Shah ET, Herington AC, Chen C, Gregory LS, Nelson CC, Seim I, Jeffery PL, Chopin LK. Abstract 4819: Insights from engraftable immunodeficient mouse models of hyperinsulinaemia. Cancer Res 2017. [DOI: 10.1158/1538-7445.am2017-4819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Hyperinsulinemia, obesity and dyslipidemia are independent and collective risk factors for many cancers, however, there is a lack of suitable mouse models available to study this association.
We examined the long-term effects of a “Western style” 23% high fat diet (HFD, 46% of total calculated energy from lipids) in two immunodeficient mouse strains (NOD/SCID and Rag1 -/-) suitable for engraftment with human-derived cell lines and tissue xenografts. HFD-fed mice of both strains exhibited diet-induced impairments in glucose tolerance at 16 and 23 weeks post initiation of HFD feeding. Only Rag1 -/- mice developed higher fasting insulin levels (2.16 ± 1.01ng/ml versus 0.71 ± 0.12ng/ml, P = 0.01) and increased insulin resistance (6.70 ± 1.68 HOMA-IR, versus 2.91 ± 0.42, P = 0.01) when fed a HFD. Similarly, hepatic steatosis was more extensive, and intramyocellular lipid storage was increased in HFD-fed Rag1 -/- mice. Conversely, NOD/SCID mice exhibited relatively low levels of steatosis and no intramyocellular lipid was observed. These data suggest that Rag1 -/- mice are a more suitable pre-clinical model for examining the interactions between hyperinsulinemia, obesity and hyperlipidemia and cancer than the more commonly used NOD/SCID mouse model.
We next investigated the growth of human prostate cancer cell lines (PC3 and LNCaP) subcutaneously injected into hyperinsulinemic Rag1 -/- mice. Compared to normal chow-fed mice, tumor growth velocity was greater in HFD-fed mice with PC3 and LNCaP xenografts, and mice reached humane endpoints (cancer-associated cachexia and tumor burden) significantly earlier (P = 0.0078 and P = 0.031). Strikingly, HFD-fed mice bearing PC3 xenografts presented with significantly greater normalized wet tumor weight (485.16 ± 143.80% vs. 1562.69 ± 338.20%, P = 0.032), tumor volume (485.16 ± 143.80% vs.1562.69 ± 338.20%, P = 0.032) and number of Ki67 positive (proliferating) tumor cells (36.08 ± 2.53% vs. 66.14 ± 8.514, P = 0.032), compared to mice fed a normal chow diet.
In summary, this is the first study of the metabolic effects of a long-term “Western style” HFD in two immunodeficient mouse strains suitable for xenograft studies. We demonstrate that the Rag1 -/- mouse is an appropriate and novel model for studying the interactions between hyperinsulinaemia and cancer.
Citation Format: Michelle L. Maugham, Patrick B. Thomas, Gabrielle J. Crisp, Lisa K. Philp, Esha T. Shah, Adrian C. Herington, Chen Chen, Laura S. Gregory, Colleen C. Nelson, Inge Seim, Penny L. Jeffery, Lisa K. Chopin. Insights from engraftable immunodeficient mouse models of hyperinsulinaemia [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2017; 2017 Apr 1-5; Washington, DC. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2017;77(13 Suppl):Abstract nr 4819. doi:10.1158/1538-7445.AM2017-4819
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Sweeney KG, Stylianou N, Tevz G, Taherianfard A, Pirlo K, Upadhyaya A, Ratther E, Lehman M, Gleave M, Gunter J, Williams ED, Nelson CC, Hollier B. Abstract 4909: Androgen targeted therapy induces ZEB1 expression and is associated with suppression of androgen signalling and therapy resistance. Cancer Res 2017. [DOI: 10.1158/1538-7445.am2017-4909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Reactivation of the embryonic developmental pathway, epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is associated with prostate cancer (PCa) metastasis and therapy resistance. Recent evidence has demonstrated EMT is stimulated following androgen targeted therapy (ATT). In the present study we investigated the role of EMT transcription factor ZEB1 in ATT-driven EMT, PCa metastasis and drug resistance.
Immunohistochemistry (IHC) staining of ZEB1 on tissue microarrays of primary tumors from clinical samples demonstrated ZEB1 expression correlated with increased tumor aggressiveness and Gleason score. Upon stratification of patient data (n=198), high ZEB1 protein expression correlated with a shorter time to biochemical recurrence (BCR). Furthermore, IHC staining of primary tumours from 148 treatment-naïve patients with and without metastasis demonstrated high ZEB1 levels and correlated to a reduced time to metastasis.
To delineate the role of ZEB1 as a molecular driver of late-stage PCa, microarray analysis of an in vivo LNCaP progression model demonstrated ZEB1 levels increased following castration. Significantly, high ZEB1 levels were associated with patients who had undergone neoadjuvant hormone therapy with or without docetaxel and high ZEB1 levels were associated with a shorter time to BCR and metastasis. Inhibition of the androgen/androgen receptor (AR) axis in LNCaP cells using antiandrogen treatment or shRNA targeting AR resulted in upregulation of ZEB1 in LNCaP cells suggesting enhanced levels of ZEB1 may drive the early adaptive response of PCa after hormone therapy. Interestingly, in models where ZEB1 expression was elevated this was accompanied with repression of classical androgen-regulated genes suggesting ZEB1 is able to regulate the AR transcriptional pathway.
We also investigated the role of ZEB1 in cancer invasion and chemoresistance. An inducible model of ZEB1 overexpression in LNCaP cells produced a robust EMT upon ZEB1 expression and was accompanied by an invasive phenotype in 3D cultures. ZEB1 overexpression also conferred resistance to docetaxel (IC50 of 8.17±2.45nM in ZEB1-expressing cells vs. 3.35±0.23nM in control cells) potentially as a result of a reduced apoptotic cell death response mediated by ZEB1. At suboptimal doses of docetaxel, the percentage of apoptotic cells (annexin-V+/propidium iodide-) decreased 4-fold when ZEB1 was expressed compared with control cells and was accompanied by a reduction in PARP cleavage and cleaved caspase-7 expression.
In summary, we provide evidence that ZEB1 expression is increased in response to ATTs and correlates with disease progression, metastasis and therapy resistance. We also show ZEB1 is a transcriptional regulator of AR signalling in PCa, Together this provides the rationale to target ZEB1 for the development of novel therapies for the treatment of CRPC.
Note: This abstract was not presented at the meeting.
Citation Format: Katrina G. Sweeney, Nataly Stylianou, Gregor Tevz, Atefeh Taherianfard, Katrina Pirlo, Akanksha Upadhyaya, Ellca Ratther, Melanie Lehman, Martin Gleave, Jennifer Gunter, Elizabeth D. Williams, Colleen C. Nelson, Brett Hollier. Androgen targeted therapy induces ZEB1 expression and is associated with suppression of androgen signalling and therapy resistance [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2017; 2017 Apr 1-5; Washington, DC. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2017;77(13 Suppl):Abstract nr 4909. doi:10.1158/1538-7445.AM2017-4909
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Ratther E, Sweeney KG, Stylianou N, Hu Q, Tevz G, Nelson CC, Williams ED, Hollier BG. Abstract 818: Unravelling the role of androgen targeted therapies in epithelial plasticity during prostate cancer progression. Cancer Res 2017. [DOI: 10.1158/1538-7445.am2017-818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Recent evidence suggests that the use of potent androgen receptor (AR) antagonists have contributed to the increased prevalence of prostate cancer (PCa) tumors exhibiting therapy resistance. Androgen targeted therapies (ATT) inhibit the androgen/AR axis which PCa cells rely on for growth. ATT are initially effective however most men progress to metastatic castration resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC). Mechanisms of resistance include programs of epithelial plasticity (EP) such as epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and neuroendocrine transdifferentiation (NEtD). EMT enables PCa cells to become more motile and invasive. PCa cells that undergo NEtD gain neuroendocrine (NE)-like traits. Patients with NE prostate cancer (NEPC) usually present with visceral metastasis, are refractory to ATT and have short response to chemotherapies. We aim to characterize models of therapy-induced NEtD (tNEPC) and to investigate the role of tumor plasticity in the progression to mCRPC.
To recapitulate ATT in vitro, androgen-dependent LNCaP cells were treated with either enzalutamide (Enz) (10μM) or shRNA targeting AR in culture medium containing fetal bovine serum (FBS) or charcoal stripped serum (CSS) with or without 10nM dihydrotestosterone (DHT). To model EMT, LNCaP cells were engineered to express doxycycline (Dox) inducible overexpression of EMT transcription factor Snail. Androgen deprivation in vitro induced expression of NE markers in LNCaP cells compared with FBS treated cells (mean fold increase ± SEM): neuron specific enolase (ENO2) (6.0 ± 2.5), neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) (10.4 ± 6.8) and midkine (MDK) (13.2 ± 2.4). Cells co-treated with Enz and DHT had increased expression of NE markers compared to DHT alone: ENO2 (2.7 ± 0.6), NCAM (2.9 ± 0.3) and MDK (2.3 ± 1.8). AR knockdown resulted in a potent induction of NE markers compared with control cells: ENO2 (8.3 ± 1.4), NCAM (8.3 ± 2.4) and MDK (9.0 ± 2.2). Dox-induced Snail enhanced androgen deprivation-mediated upregulation of NE markers compared with no-Dox cells: ENO2 (1.3 ± 0.1), NCAM (8.3 ± 2.4) and MDK (9.0 ± 2.2). To more accurately model a preclinical setting, LNCaP tumors were grown subcutaneously in severe combined immune deficiency mice. Once tumors grew to 200mm3, mice were castrated and upon tumor recurrence mice were treated with Enz (10mg/kg). At the ethical endpoint, expression of EMT and NE markers will be assessed.
Patients treated with ATTs show an increase in NE-like traits. Thus, there is a need to identify molecular mechanisms involved in this adaptive response. In vitro, we have modelled the acquisition of NE-like features in PCa cells using ATTs, EMT drivers and AR knockdown. Further investigation using these models may lead to the development of biomarkers and therapeutic targets for the clinical management of advanced PCa.
Citation Format: Ellca Ratther, Katrina G. Sweeney, Nataly Stylianou, Qiuhua Hu, Gregor Tevz, Colleen C. Nelson, Elizabeth D. Williams, Brett G. Hollier. Unravelling the role of androgen targeted therapies in epithelial plasticity during prostate cancer progression [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2017; 2017 Apr 1-5; Washington, DC. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2017;77(13 Suppl):Abstract nr 818. doi:10.1158/1538-7445.AM2017-818
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Seim I, Jeffery PL, Thomas PB, Nelson CC, Chopin LK. Whole-Genome Sequence of the Metastatic PC3 and LNCaP Human Prostate Cancer Cell Lines. G3 (BETHESDA, MD.) 2017; 7:1731-1741. [PMID: 28413162 PMCID: PMC5473753 DOI: 10.1534/g3.117.039909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2017] [Accepted: 04/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The bone metastasis-derived PC3 and the lymph node metastasis-derived LNCaP prostate cancer cell lines are widely studied, having been described in thousands of publications over the last four decades. Here, we report short-read whole-genome sequencing (WGS) and de novo assembly of PC3 (ATCC CRL-1435) and LNCaP (clone FGC; ATCC CRL-1740) at ∼70 × coverage. A known homozygous mutation in TP53 and homozygous loss of PTEN were robustly identified in the PC3 cell line, whereas the LNCaP cell line exhibited a larger number of putative inactivating somatic point and indel mutations (and in particular a loss of stop codon events). This study also provides preliminary evidence that loss of one or both copies of the tumor suppressor Capicua (CIC) contributes to primary tumor relapse and metastatic progression, potentially offering a treatment target for castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). Our work provides a resource for genetic, genomic, and biological studies employing two commonly-used prostate cancer cell lines.
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Maugham ML, Thomas PB, Crisp GJ, Philp LK, Shah ET, Herington AC, Chen C, Gregory LS, Nelson CC, Seim I, Jeffery PL, Chopin LK. Insights from engraftable immunodeficient mouse models of hyperinsulinaemia. Sci Rep 2017; 7:491. [PMID: 28352127 PMCID: PMC5428450 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-00443-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2016] [Accepted: 02/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Hyperinsulinaemia, obesity and dyslipidaemia are independent and collective risk factors for many cancers. Here, the long-term effects of a 23% Western high-fat diet (HFD) in two immunodeficient mouse strains (NOD/SCID and Rag1 -/-) suitable for engraftment with human-derived tissue xenografts, and the effect of diet-induced hyperinsulinaemia on human prostate cancer cell line xenograft growth, were investigated. Rag1 -/-and NOD/SCID HFD-fed mice demonstrated diet-induced impairments in glucose tolerance at 16 and 23 weeks post weaning. Rag1 -/- mice developed significantly higher fasting insulin levels (2.16 ± 1.01 ng/ml, P = 0.01) and increased insulin resistance (6.70 ± 1.68 HOMA-IR, P = 0.01) compared to low-fat chow-fed mice (0.71 ± 0.12 ng/ml and 2.91 ± 0.42 HOMA-IR). This was not observed in the NOD/SCID strain. Hepatic steatosis was more extensive in Rag1 -/- HFD-fed mice compared to NOD/SCID mice. Intramyocellular lipid storage was increased in Rag1 -/- HFD-fed mice, but not in NOD/SCID mice. In Rag1 -/- HFD-fed mice, LNCaP xenograft tumours grew more rapidly compared to low-fat chow-fed mice. This is the first characterisation of the metabolic effects of long-term Western HFD in two mouse strains suitable for xenograft studies. We conclude that Rag1 -/- mice are an appropriate and novel xenograft model for studying the relationship between cancer and hyperinsulinaemia.
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Levrier C, Sadowski MC, Rockstroh A, Gabrielli B, Kavallaris M, Lehman M, Davis RA, Nelson CC. 6α-Acetoxyanopterine: A Novel Structure Class of Mitotic Inhibitor Disrupting Microtubule Dynamics in Prostate Cancer Cells. Mol Cancer Ther 2016; 16:3-15. [DOI: 10.1158/1535-7163.mct-16-0325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2016] [Revised: 09/16/2016] [Accepted: 10/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Liberio MS, Sadowski MC, Davis RA, Rockstroh A, Vasireddy R, Lehman ML, Nelson CC. The ascidian natural product eusynstyelamide B is a novel topoisomerase II poison that induces DNA damage and growth arrest in prostate and breast cancer cells. Oncotarget 2016; 6:43944-63. [PMID: 26733491 PMCID: PMC4791278 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.6267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2015] [Accepted: 10/08/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
As part of an anti-cancer natural product drug discovery program, we recently identified eusynstyelamide B (EB), which displayed cytotoxicity against MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells (IC50 = 5 μM) and induced apoptosis. Here, we investigated the mechanism of action of EB in cancer cell lines of the prostate (LNCaP) and breast (MDA-MB-231). EB inhibited cell growth (IC50 = 5 μM) and induced a G2 cell cycle arrest, as shown by a significant increase in the G2/M cell population in the absence of elevated levels of the mitotic marker phospho-histone H3. In contrast to MDA-MB-231 cells, EB did not induce cell death in LNCaP cells when treated for up to 10 days. Transcript profiling and Ingenuity Pathway Analysis suggested that EB activated DNA damage pathways in LNCaP cells. Consistent with this, CHK2 phosphorylation was increased, p21CIP1/WAF1 was up-regulated and CDC2 expression strongly reduced by EB. Importantly, EB caused DNA double-strand breaks, yet did not directly interact with DNA. Analysis of topoisomerase II-mediated decatenation discovered that EB is a novel topoisomerase II poison.
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Soekmadji C, Riches JD, Russell PJ, Ruelcke JE, McPherson S, Wang C, Hovens CM, Corcoran NM, Hill MM, Nelson CC. Modulation of paracrine signaling by CD9 positive small extracellular vesicles mediates cellular growth of androgen deprived prostate cancer. Oncotarget 2016; 8:52237-52255. [PMID: 28881726 PMCID: PMC5581025 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.11111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2015] [Accepted: 07/16/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Proliferation and maintenance of both normal and prostate cancer (PCa) cells is highly regulated by steroid hormones, particularly androgens, and the extracellular environment. Herein, we identify the secretion of CD9 positive extracellular vesicles (EV) by LNCaP and DUCaP PCa cells in response to dihydrotestosterone (DHT) and use nano-LC–MS/MS to identify the proteins present in these EV. Subsequent bioinformatic and pathway analyses of the mass spectrometry data identified pathologically relevant pathways that may be altered by EV contents. Western blot and CD9 EV TR-FIA assay confirmed a specific increase in the amount of CD9 positive EV in DHT-treated LNCaP and DUCaP cells and treatment of cells with EV enriched with CD9 after DHT exposure can induce proliferation in androgen-deprived conditions. siRNA knockdown of endogenous CD9 in LNCaPs reduced cellular proliferation and expression of AR and prostate specific antigen (PSA) however knockdown of AR did not alter CD9 expression, also implicating CD9 as an upstream regulator of AR. Moreover CD9 positive EV were also found to be significantly higher in plasma from prostate cancer patients in comparison with benign prostatic hyperplasia patients. We conclude that CD9 positive EV are involved in mediating paracrine signalling and contributing toward prostate cancer progression.
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Lai J, An J, Seim I, Walpole C, Hoffman A, Moya L, Srinivasan S, Perry-Keene JL, Wang C, Lehman ML, Nelson CC, Clements JA, Batra J. Erratum to: Fusion transcript loci share many genomic features with non-fusion loci. BMC Genomics 2016; 17:424. [PMID: 27259281 PMCID: PMC4893206 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-016-2751-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
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Wibowo M, Levrier C, Sadowski MC, Nelson CC, Wang Q, Holst J, Healy PC, Hofmann A, Davis RA. Bioactive Dihydro-β-agarofuran Sesquiterpenoids from the Australian Rainforest Plant Maytenus bilocularis. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2016; 79:1445-1453. [PMID: 27120798 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.6b00190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Chemical investigations of the CH2Cl2 extract obtained from the leaves of the Australian rainforest tree Maytenus bilocularis afforded three new dihydro-β-agarofurans, bilocularins A-C (1-3), and six known congeners, namely, celastrine A (4), 1α,6β,8α-triacetoxy-9α-benzoyloxydihydro-β-agarofuran (5), 1α,6β-diacetoxy-9α-benzoyloxy-8α-hydroxydihydro-β-agarofuran (6), Ejap-10 (11), 1α,6β-diacetoxy-9β-benzoyloxydihydro-β-agarofuran (12), and Ejap-2 (13). The major compound 1 was used in semisynthetic studies to afford four ester derivatives (7-10). The chemical structures of 1-3 were elucidated following analysis of 1D/2D NMR and MS data. The absolute configurations of bilocularins A (1) and B (2) were determined by single-crystal X-ray diffraction analysis. All compounds were evaluated for cytotoxic activity against the human prostate cancer cell line LNCaP; none of the compounds were active. However, several compounds showed similar potency to the drug efflux pump inhibitor verapamil in reversing the drug resistance of the human leukemia CEM/VCR R cell line. In addition, similar to verapamil, compound 5 was found to inhibit leucine uptake in LNCaP cells (IC50 = 15.5 μM), which was more potent than the leucine analogue 2-aminobicyclo[2.2.1]heptane-2-carbocyclic acid. This is the first report of secondary metabolites from Maytenus bilocularis.
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Stuchbery R, Kurganovs NJ, McCoy PJ, Nelson CC, Hayes VM, Corcoran NM, Hovens CM. Target Acquired: Progress and Promise of Targeted Therapeutics in the Treatment of Prostate Cancer. Curr Cancer Drug Targets 2016; 15:394-405. [PMID: 25882061 DOI: 10.2174/1568009615666150416113453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2014] [Revised: 11/30/2014] [Accepted: 11/30/2014] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Cancer is fundamentally a genomic disease caused by mutations or rearrangements in the DNA or epigenetic machinery of a patient. An emerging field in cancer treatment targets key aberrations arising from the mutational landscape of an individual patient's disease rather than employing a cancer-wide cytotoxic therapy approach. In prostate cancer in particular, where there is an observed variation in response to standard treatments between patients with disease of a similar pathological stage and grade, mutationdirected treatment may grow to be a viable tool for clinicians to tailor more effective treatments. This review will describe a number of mutations across multiple forms of cancer that have been successfully antagonised by targeted therapeutics including their identification, the development of targeted compounds to combat them and the development of resistance to these therapies. This review will continue to examine these same mutations in the treatment and management of prostate cancer; the prevalence of targetable mutations in prostate cancer, recent clinical trials of targeted-agents and the potential or limitations for their use.
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An J, Lai J, Zeng L, C. Nelson C. Analysis of Differential Gene Expression Based on Bayesian Estimation of Variance. Curr Bioinform 2016. [DOI: 10.2174/1574893611666160125221655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Shah ET, Upadhyaya A, Philp LK, Tang T, Skalamera D, Gunter J, Nelson CC, Williams ED, Hollier BG. Repositioning "old" drugs for new causes: identifying new inhibitors of prostate cancer cell migration and invasion. Clin Exp Metastasis 2016; 33:385-99. [PMID: 26932199 DOI: 10.1007/s10585-016-9785-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2015] [Accepted: 02/23/2016] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
The majority of prostate cancer (PCa) deaths occur due to the metastatic spread of tumor cells to distant organs. Currently, there is a lack of effective therapies once tumor cells have spread outside the prostate. It is therefore imperative to rapidly develop therapeutics to inhibit the metastatic spread of tumor cells. Gain of cell motility and invasive properties is the first step of metastasis and by inhibiting motility one can potentially inhibit metastasis. Using the drug repositioning strategy, we developed a cell-based multi-parameter primary screening assay to identify drugs that inhibit the migratory and invasive properties of metastatic PC-3 PCa cells. Following the completion of the primary screening assay, 33 drugs were identified from an FDA approved drug library that either inhibited migration or were cytotoxic to the PC-3 cells. Based on the data obtained from the subsequent validation studies, mitoxantrone hydrochloride, simvastatin, fluvastatin and vandetanib were identified as strong candidates that can inhibit both the migration and invasion of PC-3 cells without significantly affecting cell viability. By employing the drug repositioning strategy instead of a de novo drug discovery and development strategy, the identified drug candidates have the potential to be rapidly translated into the clinic for the management of men with aggressive forms of PCa.
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Tevz G, McGrath S, Demeter R, Magrini V, Jeet V, Rockstroh A, McPherson S, Lai J, Bartonicek N, An J, Batra J, Dinger ME, Lehman ML, Williams ED, Nelson CC. Identification of a novel fusion transcript between human relaxin-1 (RLN1) and human relaxin-2 (RLN2) in prostate cancer. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2016; 420:159-68. [PMID: 26499396 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2015.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2015] [Revised: 10/13/2015] [Accepted: 10/16/2015] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Simultaneous expression of highly homologous RLN1 and RLN2 genes in prostate impairs their accurate delineation. We used PacBio SMRT sequencing and RNA-Seq in LNCaP cells in order to dissect the expression of RLN1 and RLN2 variants. We identified a novel fusion transcript comprising the RLN1 and RLN2 genes and found evidence of its expression in the normal and prostate cancer tissues. The RLN1-RLN2 fusion putatively encodes RLN2 isoform with the deleted secretory signal peptide. The identification of the fusion transcript provided information to determine unique RLN1-RLN2 fusion and RLN1 regions. The RLN1-RLN2 fusion was co-expressed with RLN1 in LNCaP cells, but the two gene products were inversely regulated by androgens. We showed that RLN1 is underrepresented in common PCa cell lines in comparison to normal and PCa tissue. The current study brings a highly relevant update to the relaxin field, and will encourage further studies of RLN1 and RLN2 in PCa and broader.
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Levrier C, Sadowski MC, Nelson CC, Davis RA. Cytotoxic C20 Diterpenoid Alkaloids from the Australian Endemic Rainforest Plant Anopterus macleayanus. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2015; 78:2908-2916. [PMID: 26600001 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.5b00509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
In order to identify new anticancer compounds from nature, a prefractionated library derived from Australian endemic plants was generated and screened against the prostate cancer cell line LNCaP using a metabolic assay. Fractions from the seeds, leaves, and wood of Anopterus macleayanus showed cytotoxic activity and were subsequently investigated using a combination of bioassay-guided fractionation and mass-directed isolation. This led to the identification of four new diterpenoid alkaloids, 6α-acetoxyanopterine (1), 4'-hydroxy-6α-acetoxyanopterine (2), 4'-hydroxyanopterine (3), and 11α-benzoylanopterine (4), along with four known compounds, anopterine (5), 7β-hydroxyanopterine (6), 7β,4'-dihydroxyanopterine (7), and 7β-hydroxy-11α-benzoylanopterine (8); all compounds were purified as their trifluoroacetate salt. The chemical structures of 1-8 were elucidated after analysis of 1D/2D NMR and MS data. Compounds 1-8 were evaluated for cytotoxic activity against a panel of human prostate cancer cells (LNCaP, C4-2B, and DuCaP) and nonmalignant cell lines (BPH-1 and WPMY-1), using a live-cell imaging system and a metabolic assay. All compounds showed potent cytotoxicity with IC50 values of <400 nM; compound 1 was the most active natural product from this series, with an IC50 value of 3.1 nM toward the LNCaP cell line. The live-cell imaging assay on 1-8 showed a concentration- and time-dependent effect on the cell morphology and proliferation of LNCaP cells.
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Lai J, An J, Seim I, Walpole C, Hoffman A, Moya L, Srinivasan S, Perry-Keene JL, Wang C, Lehman ML, Nelson CC, Clements JA, Batra J. Fusion transcript loci share many genomic features with non-fusion loci. BMC Genomics 2015; 16:1021. [PMID: 26626734 PMCID: PMC4667522 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-015-2235-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2015] [Accepted: 11/23/2015] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Fusion transcripts are found in many tissues and have the potential to create novel functional products. Here, we investigate the genomic sequences around fusion junctions to better understand the transcriptional mechanisms mediating fusion transcription/splicing. We analyzed data from prostate (cancer) cells as previous studies have shown extensively that these cells readily undergo fusion transcription. RESULTS We used the FusionMap program to identify high-confidence fusion transcripts from RNAseq data. The RNAseq datasets were from our (N = 8) and other (N = 14) clinical prostate tumors with adjacent non-cancer cells, and from the LNCaP prostate cancer cell line that were mock-, androgen- (DHT), and anti-androgen- (bicalutamide, enzalutamide) treated. In total, 185 fusion transcripts were identified from all RNAseq datasets. The majority (76%) of these fusion transcripts were 'read-through chimeras' derived from adjacent genes in the genome. Characterization of sequences at fusion loci were carried out using a combination of the FusionMap program, custom Perl scripts, and the RNAfold program. Our computational analysis indicated that most fusion junctions (76%) use the consensus GT-AG intron donor-acceptor splice site, and most fusion transcripts (85%) maintained the open reading frame. We assessed whether parental genes of fusion transcripts have the potential to form complementary base pairing between parental genes which might bring them into physical proximity. Our computational analysis of sequences flanking fusion junctions at parental loci indicate that these loci have a similar propensity as non-fusion loci to hybridize. The abundance of repetitive sequences at fusion and non-fusion loci was also investigated given that SINE repeats are involved in aberrant gene transcription. We found few instances of repetitive sequences at both fusion and non-fusion junctions. Finally, RT-qPCR was performed on RNA from both clinical prostate tumors and adjacent non-cancer cells (N = 7), and LNCaP cells treated as above to validate the expression of seven fusion transcripts and their respective parental genes. We reveal that fusion transcript expression is similar to the expression of parental genes. CONCLUSIONS Fusion transcripts maintain the open reading frame, and likely use the same transcriptional machinery as non-fusion transcripts as they share many genomic features at splice/fusion junctions.
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Sadowski MC, Pouwer RH, Gunter JH, Lubik AA, Quinn RJ, Nelson CC. The fatty acid synthase inhibitor triclosan: repurposing an anti-microbial agent for targeting prostate cancer. Oncotarget 2015; 5:9362-81. [PMID: 25313139 PMCID: PMC4253440 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.2433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Inhibition of FASN has emerged as a promising therapeutic target in cancer, and numerous inhibitors have been investigated. However, severe pharmacological limitations have challenged their clinical testing. The synthetic FASN inhibitor triclosan, which was initially developed as a topical antibacterial agent, is merely affected by these pharmacological limitations. Yet, little is known about its mechanism in inhibiting the growth of cancer cells. Here we compared the cellular and molecular effects of triclosan in a panel of eight malignant and non-malignant prostate cell lines to the well-known FASN inhibitors C75 and orlistat, which target different partial catalytic activities of FASN. Triclosan displayed a superior cytotoxic profile with a several-fold lower IC50 than C75 or orlistat. Structure-function analysis revealed that alcohol functionality of the parent phenol is critical for inhibitory action. Rescue experiments confirmed that end product starvation was a major cause of cytotoxicity. Importantly, triclosan, C75 and orlistat induced distinct changes to morphology, cell cycle, lipid content and the expression of key enzymes of lipid metabolism, demonstrating that inhibition of different partial catalytic activities of FASN activates different metabolic pathways. These finding combined with its well-documented pharmacological safety profile make triclosan a promising drug candidate for the treatment of prostate cancer.
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Lai J, An J, Nelson CC, Lehman ML, Batra J, Clements JA. Analysis of androgen and anti-androgen regulation of KLK-related peptidase 2, 3, and 4 alternative transcripts in prostate cancer. Biol Chem 2015; 395:1127-32. [PMID: 25153393 DOI: 10.1515/hsz-2014-0149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2014] [Accepted: 06/11/2014] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
We assessed whether alternative transcripts (using KLK2, KLK3 and KLK4 as models) are differentially regulated by androgens and anti-androgens as an indicator of prostate cancers as they acquire treatment resistance. Using RNAseq of LNCaP cells treated with dihydrotestosterone, bicalutamide and enzalutamide, we show that the expression of variant KLK transcripts is markedly different to other variant transcripts at those loci. We also reveal that KLK variants are also over 2-fold more highly expressed in prostate cancers compared to their corresponding normal prostate. We propose that androgens and anti-androgens can activate specific variant transcripts of critical prostate cancer genes during treatment resistance.
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Davis ID, Long A, Yip S, Espinoza D, Thompson JF, Kichenadasse G, Harrison M, Lowenthal RM, Pavlakis N, Azad A, Kannourakis G, Steer C, Goldstein D, Shapiro J, Harvie R, Jovanovic L, Hudson AL, Nelson CC, Stockler MR, Martin A. EVERSUN: a phase 2 trial of alternating sunitinib and everolimus as first-line therapy for advanced renal cell carcinoma. Ann Oncol 2015; 26:1118-1123. [PMID: 25701452 DOI: 10.1093/annonc/mdv078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2014] [Accepted: 02/09/2015] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND We hypothesised that alternating inhibitors of the vascular endothelial growth factor receptor (VEGFR) and mammalian target of rapamycin pathways would delay the development of resistance in advanced renal cell carcinoma (aRCC). PATIENTS AND METHODS A single-arm, two-stage, multicentre, phase 2 trial to determine the activity, feasibility, and safety of 12-week cycles of sunitinib 50 mg daily 4 weeks on / 2 weeks off, alternating with everolimus 10 mg daily for 5 weeks on / 1 week off, until disease progression or prohibitive toxicity in favourable or intermediate-risk aRCC. The primary end point was proportion alive and progression-free at 6 months (PFS6m). The secondary end points were feasibility, tumour response, overall survival (OS), and adverse events (AEs). The correlative objective was to assess biomarkers and correlate with clinical outcome. RESULTS We recruited 55 eligible participants from September 2010 to August 2012. DEMOGRAPHICS mean age 61, 71% male, favourable risk 16%, intermediate risk 84%. Cycle 2 commenced within 14 weeks for 80% of participants; 64% received ≥22 weeks of alternating therapy; 78% received ≥22 weeks of any treatment. PFS6m was 29/55 (53%; 95% confidence interval [CI] 40% to 66%). Tumour response rate was 7/55 (13%; 95% CI 4% to 22%, all partial responses). After median follow-up of 20 months, 47 of 55 (86%) had progressed with a median progression-free survival of 8 months (95% CI 5-10), and 30 of 55 (55%) had died with a median OS of 17 months (95% CI 12-undefined). AEs were consistent with those expected for each single agent. No convincing prognostic biomarkers were identified. CONCLUSIONS The EVERSUN regimen was feasible and safe, but its activity did not meet pre-specified values to warrant further research. This supports the current approach of continuing anti-VEGF therapy until progression or prohibitive toxicity before changing treatment. AUSTRALIAN NEW ZEALAND CLINICAL TRIALS REGISTRY ACTRN12609000643279.
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Kumar R, Sadowski MC, Levrier C, Nelson CC, Jones AJ, Holleran JP, Avery VM, Healy PC, Davis RA. Design and Synthesis of a Screening Library Using the Natural Product Scaffold 3-Chloro-4-hydroxyphenylacetic Acid. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2015; 78:914-918. [PMID: 25803573 DOI: 10.1021/np500856u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The fungal metabolite 3-chloro-4-hydroxyphenylacetic acid (1) was utilized in the generation of a unique drug-like screening library using parallel solution-phase synthesis. A 20-membered amide library (3-22) was generated by first converting 1 to methyl (3-chloro-4-hydroxyphenyl)acetate (2), then reacting this scaffold with a diverse series of primary amines via a solvent-free aminolysis procedure. The structures of the synthetic analogues (3-22) were elucidated by spectroscopic data analysis. The structures of compounds 8, 12, and 22 were confirmed by single X-ray crystallographic analysis. All compounds were evaluated for cytotoxicity against a human prostate cancer cell line (LNCaP) and for antiparasitic activity toward Trypanosoma brucei brucei and Plasmodium falciparum and showed no significant activity at 10 μM. The library was also tested for effects on the lipid content of LNCaP and PC-3 prostate cancer cells, and it was demonstrated that the fluorobenzyl analogues (12-14) significantly reduced cellular phospholipid and neutral lipid levels.
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Wang Q, Hardie RA, Hoy AJ, van Geldermalsen M, Gao D, Fazli L, Sadowski MC, Balaban S, Schreuder M, Nagarajah R, Wong JJL, Metierre C, Pinello N, Otte NJ, Lehman ML, Gleave M, Nelson CC, Bailey CG, Ritchie W, Rasko JEJ, Holst J. Targeting ASCT2-mediated glutamine uptake blocks prostate cancer growth and tumour development. J Pathol 2015; 236:278-89. [PMID: 25693838 PMCID: PMC4973854 DOI: 10.1002/path.4518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 251] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2014] [Revised: 01/19/2015] [Accepted: 02/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Glutamine is conditionally essential in cancer cells, being utilized as a carbon and nitrogen source for macromolecule production, as well as for anaplerotic reactions fuelling the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle. In this study, we demonstrated that the glutamine transporter ASCT2 (SLC1A5) is highly expressed in prostate cancer patient samples. Using LNCaP and PC‐3 prostate cancer cell lines, we showed that chemical or shRNA‐mediated inhibition of ASCT2 function in vitro decreases glutamine uptake, cell cycle progression through E2F transcription factors, mTORC1 pathway activation and cell growth. Chemical inhibition also reduces basal oxygen consumption and fatty acid synthesis, showing that downstream metabolic function is reliant on ASCT2‐mediated glutamine uptake. Furthermore, shRNA knockdown of ASCT2 in PC‐3 cell xenografts significantly inhibits tumour growth and metastasis in vivo, associated with the down‐regulation of E2F cell cycle pathway proteins. In conclusion, ASCT2‐mediated glutamine uptake is essential for multiple pathways regulating the cell cycle and cell growth, and is therefore a putative therapeutic target in prostate cancer. © 2015 The Authors. The Journal of Pathology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Pathological Society of Great Britain and Ireland.
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Rhee H, Gunter JH, Heathcote P, Ho K, Stricker P, Corcoran NM, Nelson CC. Adverse effects of androgen-deprivation therapy in prostate cancer and their management. BJU Int 2015; 115 Suppl 5:3-13. [DOI: 10.1111/bju.12964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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