The characterization of myosin-product complexes and of product-release steps during the magnesium ion-dependent adenosine triphosphatase reaction

Evidence is presented that the myosin subfragment-1-ADP complex, generated by the addition of Mg(2+) and ADP to subfragment 1, is an intermediate within the myosin Mg(2+)-dependent adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase) turnover cycle. The existence of this species as a steady-state intermediate at pH8 and 5 degrees C is demonstrated by fluorescence measurements, but its concentration becomes too low to measure at 21 degrees C. This arises because there is a marked temperature-dependence on the rate of the process controlling ADP dissociation from subfragment 1 (rate=1.4s(-1) at 21 degrees C, 0.07s(-1) at 5 degrees C). In the ATPase pathway this reaction is in series with a relatively temperature-insensitive process, namely an isomerization of the subfragment-1-product complex (rate=0.055s(-1) at 21 degrees C, 0.036s(-1) at 5 degrees C). By means of studies on the P(i) inhibition of nucleotide-association rates, a myosin subfragment-1-P(i) complex was characterized with a dissociation equilibrium constant of 1.5mm. P(i) appears to bind more weakly to the myosin subfragment-1-ADP complex. The studies indicate that P(i) dissociates from subfragment 1 at a rate greater than 40s(-1), and substantiates the existence of a myosin-product isomerization before product release in the elementary processes of the Mg(2+)-dependent ATPase. In this ATPase mechanism Mg(2+) associates as a complex with ATP and is released as a complex with ADP. In 0.1m-KCl at pH8 1.0mol of H(+) is released/mol of subfragment 1 concomitant with the myosin-product isomerization or P(i) dissociation, and 0.23 mol of H(+) is released/mol of subfragment when ATP binds to the protein, but 0.23 mol of H(+) is taken up again from the medium when ADP dissociates. Within experimental sensitivity no H(+) is released into the medium in the step involving ATP cleavage.

Phosphate release and force generation in skeletal muscle fibers

Rapid laser pulse-induced photolysis of an adenosine triphosphate precursor in muscle fibers abruptly initiated cycling of the cross-bridges. The accompanying changes in tension and stiffness were related to elementary mechanochemical events of the energy-transducing mechanism. When inorganic phosphate was present at millimolar concentrations during liberation of adenosine triphosphate in the absence of calcium, relaxation was accelerated. Steady active tension in the presence of calcium was decreased but the approach to final tension was more rapid. These results suggest that, during energy transduction, formation of the dominant force-generating cross-bridge state is coupled to release of inorganic phosphate in a reaction that is readily reversible.

Kinetic analysis of ATPase mechanisms

At even the simplest level we can expect an ATPase mechanism to comprise the following four steps: the binding of ATP, the reaction of ATP with water on the enzyme, and the release of the products ADP and P1. So at the outset techniques are needed to investigate these four processes. The range of techniques needed is soon extended once questions are asked about the role of protons and metal ions, the possibility of a multistep hydrolytic process, multistep substrate and product binding processes, and protein–lipid or protein–protein interactions. Since ATPases and ATP synthases are almost universally involved in some form of energy transduction there is a particular need in an ATPase or ATP synthase reaction to evaluate the equilibrium constants of the steps in the mechanism and to investigate the possibility of alternate reaction pathways. The nature of the coupling process by the protein of the chemical reactions of ATP to the other energetic process, be it muscle contraction, active transport, respiration or photosynthesis, is likewise of profound interest. Finally we would like to know as much as possible about the ATPase or ATP synthase mechanism during the period when the various forms of energy transduction are occurring.

Kinetics of smooth and skeletal muscle activation by laser pulse photolysis of caged inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate

Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (InsP3) can stimulate skinned smooth and skeletal muscle to contract by initiating Ca2+ release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Whether this process is an integral component of the in vivo muscle activation mechanism was tested by releasing InsP3 rapidly within skinned muscle fibers of rabbit main pulmonary artery and frog semitendinosus. InsP3 was liberated on laser pulse photolysis of a photolabile but biologically inactive precursor of InsP3 termed caged InsP3. Caged InsP3 is a mixture of compounds in which InsP3 is esterified with 1(2-nitrophenyl)diazoethane (probably at the P4- or P5-position). Photochemical release of InsP3 induced a full contraction in both muscles at physiological free Mg2+ concentrations, but only in the smooth muscle were the InsP3 concentration (0.5 microM) and the activation rate compatible with the in vivo physiological response. Endogenous InsP3-specific phosphatase activity was present in smooth muscle and had about 35-fold greater activity than that in the skeletal-muscle preparation. Caged InsP3 was not susceptible to phosphatases in either preparation.

Relaxation of rabbit psoas muscle fibres from rigor by photochemical generation of adenosine-5'-triphosphate

Correlations have been made between the mechanical and biochemical descriptions of muscle relaxation. Skinned muscle fibres in the rigor state were incubated in a solution containing P3-1-(2-nitro)phenylethyladenosine-5'-triphosphate, 'caged ATP', an inert photolabile precursor of ATP, and free Ca2+ concentration less than 10(-8) M. The mechanical response of the fibre was monitored during relaxation initiated by liberating ATP with a pulse of 347 nm light from a frequency-doubled ruby laser. Tension first dropped and then rose briefly, before finally declining to the relaxed level. Stiffness, in phase with a sinusoidal length change, declined monotonically after the laser pulse. Out-of-phase stiffness increased briefly after a delay, then returned to the base line during the final relaxation. The development of the out-of-phase stiffness signal was taken as evidence that during the relaxation some cross-bridges were present with properties similar to those in an active contraction. The tension rise and slower phase of relaxation can be explained by a mechanism in which some of the cross-bridges reattach, generate force and finally detach in the absence of Ca2+ ions. In this model cross-bridge attachment is facilitated by protein co-operativity within the myofilaments. Detailed analysis of the mechanical transients makes other possible models for the initial tension rise unlikely. Stretching or releasing fibres prior to photolysis changed the time course of the early parts of the tension transient without significant effect on the later phases or on stiffness. The tension records from stretch, release and isometric trials converged to a final common time course of relaxation. Analysis of the convergence of tension records provided a means for measuring the cross-bridge detachment rate from the thin filament as a function of ATP concentration. The apparent second-order rate constant for detachment was at least 5 X 10(5) M-1 S-1 at 20-22 degrees C. The final relaxation rate was less dependent on ATP concentration than the early convergence. The results indicate that ATP binding and cross-bridge detachment from the nucleotide-free intermediate of the cross-bridge cycle are rapid compared to the cross-bridge cycling rate.

Relationships between chemical and mechanical events during muscular contraction

In this review we have attempted a synthesis of ideas from cross-bridge theories of muscle contraction with biochemical mechanisms of the actomyosin ATPase. This synthesis of ideas has been based on experimental approaches that permit mechanical and biochemical investigations on the same system. We have formulated an example of how biochemical processes may be influenced by strain in the cross-bridge and have highlighted how much has yet to be learned about the biochemistry (and protein structure) of the working stroke of the cross-bridge. Processes that do not appear to be related to the working stroke such as ATP-induced dissociation of actomyosin or protein-bound ATP hydrolysis appear to be similar kinetically in fibers and isolated actomyosin. But, as might be expected, this is not the case in those processes that involve force production and the performance of mechanical work. There appears to be a sound base from which the mechanochemistry of individual processes within the cross-bridge cycle can be analyzed in detail. There is a need for the development of spectroscopic techniques, particularly those that might detect the rate of Pi and ADP dissociation from cross-bridges into the medium. The combination of pulse photolysis of caged ATP and time-resolved structure analysis by use of synchrotron radiation (53) should lead to better understanding of the structure of cross-bridge states in relation to the chemistry and mechanics of transient intermediates.

The magnesium ion-dependent adenosine triphosphatase of myosin. Two-step processes of adenosine triphosphate association and adenosine diphosphate dissociation

The kinetics of protein-fluorescence change when rabbit skeletal myosin subfragment 1 is mixed with ATP or adenosine 5'-(3-thiotriphosphate) in the presence of Mg(2+) are incompatible with a simple bimolecular association process. A substrate-induced conformation change with DeltaG(0)<-24kJ.mol(-1) (i.e. DeltaG(0) could be more negative) at pH8 and 21 degrees C is proposed as the additional step in the binding of ATP. The postulated binding mechanism is M+ATPright harpoon over left harpoonM.ATPright harpoon over left harpoonM*.ATP, where the association constant for the first step, K(1), is 4.5x10(3)m(-1) at I 0.14m and the rate of isomerization is 400s(-1). In the presence of Mg(2+), ADP binds in a similar fashion to ATP, the rate of the conformation change also being 400s(-1), but with DeltaG(0) for that process being -14kJ.mol(-1). The effect of increasing ionic strength is to decrease K(1), the kinetics of the conformation change being essentially unaltered. Alternative schemes involving a two-step binding process for ATP to subfragment 1 are possible. These are not excluded by the experimental results, although they are perhaps less likely because they imply uncharacteristically slow bimolecular association rate constants.

The reversibility of adenosine triphosphate cleavage by myosin

For the simplest kinetic model the reverse rate constants (k(-1) and k(-2)) associated with ATP binding and cleavage on purified heavy meromyosin and heavy meromyosin subfragment 1 from rabbit skeletal muscle in the presence of 5mm-MgCl(2), 50mm-KCl and 20mm-Tris-HCl buffer at pH8.0 and 22 degrees C are: k(-1)<0.02s(-1) and k(-1)=16s(-1). Apparently, higher values of k(-1) and k(-2) are found with less-purified protein preparations. The values of k(-1) and k(-2) satisfy conditions required by previous (18)O-incorporation studies of H(2) (18)O into the P(i) moiety on ATP hydrolysis and suggest that the cleavage step does involve hydrolysis of ATP or formation of an adduct between ATP and water. The equilibrium constant for the cleavage step at the myosin active site is 9. If the cycle of events during muscle contraction is described by the model proposed by Lymn & Taylor (1971), the fact that there is only a small negative standard free-energy change for the cleavage step is advantageous for efficient chemical to mechanical energy exchange during muscle contraction.

A new approach to time-resolved studies of ATP-requiring biological systems; laser flash photolysis of caged ATP

2-Nitrobenzyl derivatives have been used for several years as photolabile protecting groups in synthetic organic chemistry. Recently, P3-1-(2-nitro phenylethyladenosine 5'-triphosphate "caged ATP" was synthesized and its photolysis was shown to generate ATP in situ. This and related reactions have great potential for structural and kinetic studies of both intact and soluble biological systems and it is thus important to define the kinetic characteristics of the photolytic reaction. Caged ATP (2.5 mM) was photolyzed at 347 nm by a single 30-nsec pulse from a frequency-doubled ruby laser of 25 mJ energy to generate 500 microM ATP. The kinetics of the overall reaction were determined by monitoring the kinetics of ATP-induced dissociation of actomyosin, a reaction of known kinetic characteristics. Release of 500 microM ATP was found to be controlled by a process having a rate constant of 2.2 X 10(9) [H+] sec-1 at 22 degrees C at pH 5.8-9.5, which corresponds to 220 sec-1 at pH 7. This process is believed to be the breakdown of an aci-nitro compound, which was identified on the basis of its spectral properties and the photochromicity of related 2-nitrobenzyl compounds.

Reversible inactivation of K+ channels of Vicia stomatal guard cells following the photolysis of caged inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate

RECENT investigations suggest that cytoplasmic D-myo-inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (InsP3) functions as a second messenger in plants, as in animals, coupling environmental and other stimuli to intracellular Ca2+ release. Cytoplasmic levels of InsP3 and the turnover of several probable precursors in plants are affected by physiological stimuli--including light, osmotic stress and the phytohormone indoleacetic acid--and InsP3 activates Ca2+ channels and Ca2+ flux across plant vacuolar and microsomal membranes. Complementary data also link changes in cytoplasmic free Ca2+ to several physiological responses, notably in guard cells which regulate gas exchange through the stomatal pores of higher plant leaves. Recent evidence indicates that guard cell K+ channels and, hence, K+ flux for stomatal movements may be controlled by cytoplasmic Ca2+. So far, however, direct evidence of a role for InsP3 in signalling in plants has remained elusive. Here we report that InsP3 released from an inactive, photolabile precursor, the P5-1-(2-nitrophenyl)ethyl ester of InsP3 (caged InsP3) reversibly inactivates K+ channels thought to mediate K+ uptake by guard cells from Vicia faba L. while simultaneously activating an apparently time-independent, inward current to depolarize the membrane potential and promote K+ efflux through a second class of K+ channels. The data are consistent with a transient rise in cytoplasmic free Ca2+ and demonstrate that intact guard cells are competent to use InsP3 in signal cascades controlling ion flux through K+ channels.

Dynamic measurement of myosin light-chain-domain tilt and twist in muscle contraction

A new method is described for measuring motions of protein domains in their native environment on the physiological timescale. Pairs of cysteines are introduced into the domain at sites chosen from its static structure and are crosslinked by a bifunctional rhodamine. Domain orientation in a reconstituted macromolecular complex is determined by combining fluorescence polarization data from a small number of such labelled cysteine pairs. This approach bridges the gap between in vitro studies of protein structure and cellular studies of protein function and is used here to measure the tilt and twist of the myosin light-chain domain with respect to actin filaments in single muscle cells. The results reveal the structural basis for the lever-arm action of the light-chain domain of the myosin motor during force generation in muscle.

Tilting of the light-chain region of myosin during step length changes and active force generation in skeletal muscle

Force generation and relative sliding between the myosin and actin filaments in muscle are thought to be caused by tilting of the head region of the myosin crossbridges between the filaments. Structural and spectroscopic experiments have demonstrated segmental flexibility of myosin in muscle, but have not shown a direct linkage between tilting of the myosin heads and either force generation or filament sliding. Here we use fluorescence polarization to detect changes in the orientation of the light-chain region of the head, the part most likely to tilt, and synchronized head movements by imposing rapid length steps. We found that the light-chain region of the myosin head tilts both during the imposed filament sliding and during the subsequent quick force recovery that is thought to signal the elementary force-generating event.

Elementary processes of the magnesium ion-dependent adenosine triphosphatase activity of heavy meromyosin. A transient kinetic approach to the study of kinases and adenosine triphosphatases and a colorimetric inorganic phosphate assay in situ

Transient kinetic studies of Mg(2+)-dependent heavy-meromyosin ATPase (adenosine triphosphatase) were done by monitoring the release of both ADP and P(i) into the reaction medium by using linked assay systems. The release of P(i) was monitored by its quantitative transfer to ADP, with concomitant reduction of NAD(+) in the presence of d-glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, d-glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase and phosphoglycerate kinase. The dissociation rates of the products, ADP and P(i), from heavy meromyosin were shown to be faster than the rate-controlling process, which occurs after the initial bond cleavage of ATP. The chromophoric ATP analogue, 6-mercapto-9-beta-d-ribofuranosylpurine 5'-triphosphate (thioATP) was used as a substrate and spectral changes associated with a single turnover of heavy meromyosin could be assigned to elementary processes of the mechanism. It was shown that the dissociation rate of thioADP was not the rate-controlling process of the thioATPase, whose catalytic-centre activity was 7.6 times that of the ATPase at pH8. The dissociation rate of ADP from heavy meromyosin was measured by using thioATP as displacing agent and was found to be 2.3s(-1), which is about 50 times the catalytic-centre activity of the ATPase at pH8. Transient kinetic studies with chromophoric adenosine phosphate analogues have general application for kinases and ATPases both in characterizing the chemical states of the intermediates and in delineating the elementary processes of the enzyme mechanism.

Cross-bridge kinetics in the presence of MgADP investigated by photolysis of caged ATP in rabbit psoas muscle fibres

1. The interaction between MgADP and rigor cross-bridges in glycerol-extracted single fibres from rabbit psoas muscle has been investigated using laser pulse photolysis of caged ATP (P3-1(2-nitrophenyl)ethyladenosine 5'-triphosphate) in the presence of MgADP and following small length changes applied to the rigor fibre. 2. Addition of 465 microM-MgADP to a rigor fibre caused rigor tension to decrease by 15.3 +/- 0.7% (S.E.M., n = 24 trials in thirteen fibres). The half-saturation value for this tension reduction was 18 +/- 4 microM (n = 23, thirteen fibres). 3. Relaxation from rigor by photolysis of caged ATP in the absence of Ca2+ was markedly slowed by inclusion of 20 microM-2 mM-MgADP in the photolysis medium. 4. Four phases of tension relaxation occurred with MgADP in the medium: at, a quick partial relaxation (in pre-stretch fibres); bt, a slowing of relaxation or a rise in tension for 50-100 ms; ct, a sudden acceleration of relaxation; and dt, a final, nearly exponential relaxation. 5. Experiments at varied MgATP and MgADP concentrations suggested that phase at is due to MgATP binding to nucleotide-free cross-bridges. 6. Phase bt was abbreviated by including 1-20 mM-orthophosphate (Pi) in the photolysis medium, or by applying quick stretches before photolysis or during phase bt. These results suggest that phases bt and ct are complex processes involving ADP dissociation, cross-bridge reattachment and co-operative detachment involving filament sliding and the Ca(2+)-regulatory system. 7. Stretching relaxed muscle fibres to 3.2-3.4 microns striation spacing followed by ATP removal and release of the rigor fibre until tension fell below the relaxed level allowed investigation of the strain dependence of relaxation in the regions of negative cross-bridge strain. In the presence of 50 microM-2 mM-MgADP and either 10 mM-Pi or 20 mM-2,3-butanedione monoxime, relaxation following photolysis of caged ATP was 6- to 8-fold faster for negatively strained cross-bridges than for positively strained ones. This marked strain dependence of cross-bridge detachment is predicted from the model of A. F. Huxley (1957). 8. In the presence of Ca2+, activation of contraction following photolysis of caged ATP was slowed by inclusion of 20-500 microM-MgADP in the medium. An initial decrease in tension related to cross-bridge detachment by MgATP was markedly suppressed in the presence of MgADP. 9. Ten millimolar Pi partly suppressed active tension generation in the presence of MgADP.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Cross-bridge kinetics, cooperativity, and negatively strained cross-bridges in vertebrate smooth muscle. A laser-flash photolysis study

The effects of laser-flash photolytic release of ATP from caged ATP [P3-1(2-nitrophenyl)ethyladenosine-5'-triphosphate] on stiffness and tension transients were studied in permeabilized guinea pig protal vein smooth muscle. During rigor, induced by removing ATP from the relaxed or contracting muscles, stiffness was greater than in relaxed muscle, and electron microscopy showed cross-bridges attached to actin filaments at an approximately 45 degree angle. In the absence of Ca2+, liberation of ATP (0.1-1 mM) into muscles in rigor caused relaxation, with kinetics indicating cooperative reattachment of some cross-bridges. Inorganic phosphate (Pi; 20 mM) accelerated relaxation. A rapid phase of force development, accompanied by a decline in stiffness and unaffected by 20 mM Pi, was observed upon liberation of ATP in muscles that were released by 0.5-1.0% just before the laser pulse. This force increment observed upon detachment suggests that the cross-bridges can bear a negative tension. The second-order rate constant for detachment of rigor cross-bridges by ATP, in the absence of Ca2+, was estimated to be 0.1-2.5 X 10(5) M-1s-1, which indicates that this reaction is too fast to limit the rate of ATP hydrolysis during physiological contractions. In the presence of Ca2+, force development occurred at a rate (0.4 s-1) similar to that of intact, electrically stimulated tissue. The rate of force development was an order of magnitude faster in muscles that had been thiophosphorylated with ATP gamma S before the photochemical liberation of ATP, which indicates that under physiological conditions, in non-thiophosphorylated muscles, light-chain phosphorylation, rather than intrinsic properties of the actomyosin cross-bridges, limits the rate of force development. The release of micromolar ATP or CTP from caged ATP or caged CTP caused force development of up to 40% of maximal active tension in the absence of Ca2+, consistent with cooperative attachment of cross-bridges. Cooperative reattachment of dephosphorylated cross-bridges may contribute to force maintenance at low energy cost and low cross-bridge cycling rates in smooth muscle.

Relaxation of muscle fibres by photolysis of caged ATP

A novel method has been developed for studying the reaction kinetics of the force-generating mechanism in muscle. Inert photolabile precursors of ATP or ADP are incorporated into muscle fibres having their surface membrane barrier removed. The nucleotide is then rapidly liberated by laser pulse photolysis. This circumvents the limitation in time resolution set by diffusion of nucleotide from the medium bathing the fibre. This laser photolysis method may be applicable to studies of the dynamic properties of many biological systems.

Initiation of active contraction by photogeneration of adenosine-5'-triphosphate in rabbit psoas muscle fibres

Mechanical and biochemical descriptions of the muscle cross-bridge cycle have been correlated. Skinned muscle fibres of rabbit psoas muscle in rigor were incubated in solutions containing approximately equal to 30 microM-Ca2+ ions and P3-1-(2-nitro)phenylethyladenosine-5'-triphosphate, 'caged ATP', an inert photolabile precursor of ATP. ATP was liberated from caged ATP within the fibres by pulses of 347 nm radiation from a frequency-doubled ruby laser. The mechanical responses of muscle fibres to the rapid increase of ATP concentration were monitored. Tension dropped briefly and then rose above the rigor value to the level characteristic of a steady active contraction. Liberation of ATP decreased in-phase stiffness (measured at 500 Hz) from the rigor level to a maintained value intermediate between rigor and relaxed values. Out-of-phase stiffness increased to a maintained level indicating a phase lead of tension with respect to imposed length oscillations. Rigor tension was varied prior to photolysis by slight alterations of fibre length. Tension traces starting at different rigor tensions converged to a common tension level at the same rate, whether or not Ca2+ was included in the medium. These data suggest that the rate of cross-bridge detachment by ATP from the rigor state is not influenced by Ca2+. Analysis of the tension records, in terms of sequential detachment and reattachment reactions, provided a measure of cross-bridge reattachment rate and an alternate measure of the detachment rate. Detachment from the rigor state was approximately proportional to the ATP concentration, with a second-order rate constant of at least 5 X 10(5) M-1 S-1. Reattachment with force generation had no detectable dependence on the concentration of ATP liberated by photolysis. A simple kinetic model of the cross-bridge cycle in terms of chemically defined intermediates was compatible with most of the experimental data. The ATP dependence of cross-bridge detachment, the kinetics of maintained cross-bridge reattachment in the presence of Ca2+, and transient reattachment and final relaxation in the absence of Ca2+ were explained. In this model, reversibility of cross-bridge attachment and the steps leading to force production allow the relatively high observed detachment rate to be accommodated with other data relating to active contraction. These data include the steady ATPase rate of active muscle fibres and the fewer attached cross-bridges in active contractions compared to rigor.

The active chemical state of D-glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate in its reactions with D-glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase, aldolase and triose phosphate isomerase

Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate exists as the geminal diol and the free aldehyde in the molar ratio 29:1 in aqueous solution. The rate constant of the conversion of diol into aldehyde is 8.7x10(-2)sec.(-1) in the pH range 7.3-8.6 at 20 degrees . The free aldehyde is the substrate for d-glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase. Over a wide concentration range of enzyme the rate of conversion of diol into aldehyde is the rate-limiting process in the catalytic oxidation of d-glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate by NAD(+). Aldolase and triose phosphate isomerase both liberate d-glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate as the aldehyde. This suggests that the relatively slow diol-aldehyde interconversion does not restrict the rate of glycolysis.

The kinetics of magnesium adenosine triphosphate cleavage in skinned muscle fibres of the rabbit

The time course of magnesium adenosine triphosphate (Mg ATP) cleavage in chemically skinned muscle fibres of the rabbit was measured by a method in which Mg ATP cleavage was initiated by photolytic release of ATP from P3-1-(2-nitro)phenylethyladenosine 5'-triphosphate (caged ATP) and terminated by rapid freezing 50 ms to 8 s later. Up to 5 mM-ATP was released following a single 50 ns laser pulse at 347 nm. Mg ATP cleavage was measured at 19 degrees C in the presence and absence of calcium ions, for fibres near rest length and stretched beyond overlap of the myofilaments. At full overlap and in the absence of calcium (less than 10(-8) M) and nucleotide, the fibres developed rigor tension. Following the laser pulse the tension decreased to that of a relaxed fibre in two distinct phases. The first phase lasted about 40 ms and was followed by a second phase during which tension decreased to zero with an approximately exponential time course with a rate constant of 11 s-1. In the presence of 2 X 10(-5) M-free calcium ions, the initial phase following the laser flash lasted approximately 13 ms, and was followed by an exponential rise of tension with a rate constant of 28 s-1. The active tension reached by the muscle fibres was 54 kN/m2. For fibres stretched beyond overlap, no change in tension was observed following the release of Mg ATP. Under all conditions the time course of Mg ATP cleavage was biphasic, and consisted of a rapid initial burst of ADP formation, complete within 50 ms, followed by a slower steady-state rate of Mg ATP cleavage. The number of molecules of Mg ATP cleaved during the burst was approximately equal to the number of myosin subfragment 1 heads for fibres at full myofilament overlap, and equal to 0.7 molecules per myosin subfragment 1 head for fibres stretched beyond overlap. At full overlap in the presence of calcium ions, the steady-state rate equalled 1.8 mol Mg ATP cleaved per mole myosin subfragment 1 head per second. In all other cases the steady-state rate of Mg ATP cleavage was at least 10-fold less. When fibres at full overlap were pre-incubated with 2 mM-ADP, the initial phase of the tension response was somewhat prolonged, but the burst of ADP formation was also complete within 50 ms.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Rapid photochemical inactivation of Ca2+-antagonists shows that Ca2+ entry directly activates contraction in frog heart

'Calcium-antagonists' are a group of pharmacological agents which are potent vasodilators and are clinically used for the treatment of angina. They are thought to block Ca2+ channels in vascular smooth muscle and myocardium but other sites of action have been proposed. These agents bind tightly to heart muscle and suppress action potential and contraction. Nifedipine and nisoldipine (BAY K 5552) are Ca2+ antagonists which have o-nitrobenzyl groups and are photolabile. We have found that short pulses of UV light rapidly inactivate these drugs in ventricular muscle. This observation allowed us to study the effect of Ca2+ antagonists on action potential, Ca2+ current and tension in conditions in which diffusion of those drugs from their site of action was not rate limiting. Our studies, described here, suggest that the primary mechanism of action of Ca2+ antagonists is the blockade of the Ca2+ channel and support the idea that extracellular space is the immediate source of contractile Ca2+ in the frog heart.

Inositol trisphosphate, calcium and muscle contraction

The identity of organelles storing intracellular calcium and the role of Ins(1,4,5)P3 in muscle have been explored with, respectively, electron probe X-ray microanalysis (EPMA) and laser photolysis of 'caged' compounds. The participation of G-protein(s) in the release of intracellular Ca2+ was determined in saponin-permeabilized smooth muscle. The sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) is identified as the major source of activator Ca2+ in both smooth and striated muscle; similar (EPMA) studies suggest that the endoplasmic reticulum is the major Ca2+ storage site in non-muscle cells. In none of the cell types did mitochondria play a significant, physiological role in the regulation of cytoplasmic Ca2+. The latency of guinea pig portal vein smooth muscle contraction following photolytic release of phenylephrine, an alpha 1-agonist, is 1.5 +/- 0.26 s at 20 degrees C and 0.6 +/- 0.18 s at 30 degrees C; the latency of contraction after photolytic release of Ins(1,4,5)P3 from caged Ins(1,4,5)P3 is 0.5 +/- 0.12 s at 20 degrees C. The long latency of alpha 1-adrenergic Ca2+ release and its temperature dependence are consistent with a process mediated by G-protein-coupled activation of phosphatidylinositol 4,5 bisphosphate (PtdIns(4,5)P2) hydrolysis. GTP gamma S, a non-hydrolysable analogue of GTP, causes Ca2+ release and contraction in permeabilized smooth muscle. Ins(1,4,5)P3 has an additive effect during the late, but not the early, phase of GTP gamma S action, and GTP gamma S can cause Ca2+ release and contraction of permeabilized smooth muscles refractory to Ins(1,4,5)P3. These results suggest that activation of G protein(s) can release Ca2+ by, at least, two G-protein-regulated mechanisms: one mediated by Ins(1,4,5)P3 and the other Ins(1,4,5)P3-independent. The low Ins(1,4,5)P3 5-phosphatase activity and the slow time-course (seconds) of the contractile response to Ins(1,4,5)P3 released with laser flash photolysis from caged Ins(1,4,5)P3 in frog skeletal muscle suggest that Ins(1,4,5)P3 is unlikely to be the physiological messenger of excitation-contraction coupling of striated muscle. In contrast, in smooth muscle the high Ins(1,4,5)P3-5-phosphatase activity and the rate of force development after photolytic release of Ins(1,4,5)P3 are compatible with a physiological role of Ins(1,4,5)P3 as a messenger of pharmacomechanical coupling.

ATPase kinetics on activation of rabbit and frog permeabilized isometric muscle fibres: a real time phosphate assay

1. The rate of appearance of inorganic phosphate (Pi) and hence the ATPase activity of rabbit psoas muscle in single permeabilized muscle fibres initially in rigor was measured following laser flash photolysis of the P3-1-(2-nitrophenyl)ethyl ester of ATP (NPE-caged ATP) in the presence and absence of Ca2+. Pi appearance was monitored from the fluorescence signal of a Pi-sensitive probe, MDCC-PBP, a coumarin-labelled A197C mutant of the phosphate-binding protein from Escherichia coli. Fibres were immersed in oil to optimize the fluorescence signal and to obviate diffusion problems. The ATPase activity was also measured under similar conditions from the rate of NADH disappearance using an NADH-linked coupled enzyme assay. 2. On photolysis of NPE-caged ATP in the presence of Ca2+ at 20 degrees C, the fluorescence increase of MDCC-PBP was non-linear with time. ATPase activity was 41 s-1 in the first turnover based on a myosin subfragment 1 concentration of 150 microM. This was calculated from a linear regression of the fluorescence signal reporting 20-150 microM of Pi release. Tension was at 67% of its isometric level by the time 150 microM Pi was released. ATPase activities were 36 and 31 s-1 for Pi released in the ranges of 150-300 microM and 300-450 microM, respectively. The ATPase activity had a Q10 value of 2.9 based on measurements at 5, 12 and 20 degrees C. 3. An NADH-linked assay showed the ATPase activity had a lower limit of 12.7 s-1 at 20 degrees C. The response to photolytic release of ADP showed that the rate of NADH disappearance was partially limited by the flux through the coupled reactions. Simulations indicated that the linked assay data were consistent with an initial ATPase activity of 40 s-1. 4. On photolysis of NPE-caged ATP in the absence of Ca2+ the ATPase activity was 0.11 s-1 at 20 degrees C with no discernible rapid transient phase of Pi release during the first turnover of the ATPase. 5. To avoid the rigor state, the ATPase rate in the presence of Ca2+ was also measured on activation from the relaxed state by photolytic release of Ca2+ from a caged Ca2+ compound, nitrophenyl-EGTA. At 5 degrees C the ATPase rate was 5.8 and 4.0 s-1 in the first and second turnovers, respectively. These rates are comparable to those when NPE-caged ATP was used. 6. The influence of ADP and Pi on the ATPase activities was measured using the MDCC-PBP and NADH-linked assays, respectively. ADP (0.5 mM) decreased the initial ATPase rate by 23%. Pi (10 mM) had no significant effect. Inhibition by ADP, formed during ATP hydrolysis, contributed to the decrease of ATPase activity with time. 7. The MDCC-PBP assay and NPE-caged ATP were used to measure the ATPase rate in single permeabilized muscle fibres of the semitendinosus muscle of the frog. At 5 degrees C in the presence of Ca2+ the ATPase activity was biphasic being 15.0 s-1 during the first turnover (based on 180 microM myosin subfragment 1). Tension was 74% of its isometric level by the time 180 microM Pi was released. During the third turnover the ATPase rate decreased to about 20% of that during the first turnover. 8. ATPase activity in isometric rabbit muscle fibres during the first few turnovers is about an order of magnitude greater than that when a steady state is reached. Possible reasons and the consequences for understanding the mechanism of muscular contraction are discussed.

The kinetics of the reaction of nitrophenyl phosphates with alkaline phosphatase from Escherichia coli

1. The steady-state rate of hydrolysis of 2,4-dinitrophenyl phosphate catalysed by Escherichia coli phosphatase is identical with that of 4-nitrophenyl phosphate over the pH range 5.5-8.5. 2. The increase in the rate of the enzyme-catalysed decomposition of nitrophenyl phosphates in the presence of tris at pH8.1 and 5.9 is consistent with the hypothesis that tris increases the rate of decomposition of a phosphoryl-enzyme intermediate. At pH8.1 the rate of decomposition of the phosphoryl-enzyme is approximately twice as fast as the rate of its formation, whereas at pH5.9 the rate of formation of the phosphoryl-enzyme is considerably faster than its decomposition. 3. Pre-steady-state measurements of the initial transient of the liberation of 2,4-dinitrophenol during the reaction of the enzyme with 2,4-dinitrophenyl phosphate confirmed the above pH-dependence of the ratio of the rates of phosphorylation and dephosphorylation of the enzyme. At optimum pH (above pH8), when the phosphorylation of the enzyme by the substrate is rate-determining, this step must be controlled by a rearrangement of the enzyme or enzyme-substrate complex.