Effect of xylazine administration before laparoscopic abomasopexy to correct left displaced abomasum on markers of stress in dairy cows

Left displacement of the abomasum in dairy cows is a disease diagnosed all over the world. In Germany, a common method for its correction is laparoscopic abomasopexy (LA). The aim of the study was to assess cortisol and substance P concentrations, behavioral patterns, and feeding and rumination times during and after LA in cattle treated with xylazine before LA compared with nonsedated cattle. A total of 28 cattle that had been referred to a veterinary teaching hospital with a diagnosis of left displacement of the abomasum were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 groups. Surgery was performed according to a standardized protocol. Animals of XYL (n = 14) received xylazine (0.02 mg/kg body weight i.v.) before surgery, and animals of CON (n = 14) received a placebo (0.9% saline i.v.). All cows received ketoprofen (3 mg/kg body weight i.v.) twice, and benzyl penicillin procaine (20,000 IU/kg body weight i.m.) for 5 ± 1 d. Blood samples for the determination of plasma cortisol concentration (PCC) and plasma substance P concentration were taken 3 h before surgery (+00:00), at 1100 h (+03:00), 1115 h (+03:15, skin incision), 1130 h (+03:30), 1145 h (+03:45, dorsal recumbency), 1200 h (+04:00, end of surgery), 1230 h (+04:30), 1300 h (+05:00), 1400 h (+06:00), and 1100 h (+27:00) the following day. Behavior was assessed on the day of surgery and the following day (0800, 1300, and 1700 h), and during surgery. Feeding and rumination time were recorded for 24 h after surgery. Data analysis was done using R (R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria). The LA was performed in all animals without negative effects. The PCC was lower in XYL than in CON at all times and significantly lower at +03:30. In CON, PCC was significantly higher at +03:45, +04:00, and +04:30 compared with +03:00. In XYL, PCC was significantly lower at +03:15 and +03:30 compared with +03:00, and significantly higher at +04:00 and +04:30. Plasma substance P concentration did not differ between groups. No differences were observed in behavior between CON and XYL. Feeding and rumination times did not differ between groups. Animals in XYL showed significantly more chews per bolus after surgery than animals in CON. In conclusion, administration of xylazine before LA results in lower stress levels for cattle during the course of LA, especially before being put into lateral and dorsal recumbency. Therefore, in the opinion of the authors, xylazine administration can be recommended before LA to improve the well-being of the animals during and after surgery.

Bovine Alphaherpesvirus 2 infections in Bavaria: an analysis of the current situation - several years after eradicating Bovine Alphaherpesvirus 1

Background

Bavaria, a large federal state in Germany, has been declared free from infections with Bovine Alphaherpesvirus 1 (BoHV-1) in 2011. To maintain this status the cattle population is monitored for antibodies against BoHV-1 regularly. Several years ago, infrequent but recurrent problems in this sero-surveillance were statistically put into correlation with the presence of antibodies against Bovine Alphaherpesvirus 2 (BoHV-2). In Europe, BoHV-2 is primarily known as the agent causing bovine herpes mammillitis. However, very little information about BoHV-2 infections in Bavaria is available so far. Therefore, the aims of this study were to determine BoHV-2 seroprevalences and to detect virus genomes in potential clinical samples.

Results

6801 blood sera of healthy cattle from all over Bavaria were tested for antibodies against BoHV-2, revealing an overall seroprevalence of 5.51%. Interestingly, seroprevalences markedly varied between the North and the South of Bavaria, namely from 0.42 to 11.17%. Concurrently, the previously reported relation between the epidemiologically inexplicable sero-reactivities in BoHV-1 ELISAs and the presence of BoHV-2 infections were statistically corroborated in this study. To detect BoHV-2 genomes a fast and sensitive real time PCR was established. Using a multiple PCR strategy, tissue samples from skin lesions at relevant localizations, corresponding lymph nodes, and trigeminal ganglia from 111 animals, as well as nasal swabs from 918 bovines with respiratory symptoms were tested. However, BoHV-2 genomes were not detected in any of these samples.

Conclusions

BoHV-2 antibodies were found in samples from bovines all over Bavaria, albeit with an explicit South-North-divide. BoHV-2 genomes, however, could not be detected in any of the analyzed samples, indicating that acute clinical cases as well as obvious virus reactivation are relatively rare. Consequently, the future spread of BoHV-2 infections throughout Bavaria, particularly, after eradicating BoHV-1, has to be further monitored.

Short communication: Design and validation of a hygiene score for calves

The objective of this study was the establishment and validation of a scoring system for calf dirtiness. Defined areas of the belly, side, and rear of the calves were scored according to the percentage of dirtiness: score 1 ranges from 0 to 10% of the area (no or little soiling), score 2 from over 10 to 30% (medium soiling), and score 3 applies to soiling of more than 30% of the area (heavy soiling). The scores of the individual regions were summed up to yield the calf hygiene score (CHS) ranging from 3 to 9. The validation of the CHS was performed by 5 veterinarians on 42 calves. It was validated for its inter- and intra-observer-reliability and against a standard method created by image processing of photographs of calves. The agreement between the observers and the standard method was weak to moderate with kappa values from 0.58 to 0.67. Inter- and intra-observer reliability resulted in a moderate to strong agreement with 29 of 36 kappa values between 0.60 and 0.89. The CHS was thus successfully validated as reliable and could be a useful tool for herd health management.

Prognostic relevance of pre- and postoperative plasma l-lactate measurements in calves with acute abdominal emergencies

In both human and veterinary medicine, l-lactate is a well-established prognostic biomarker of disease severity and mortality and has also attracted increasing attention in bovine medicine due to the availability and validation of cheap and portable l-lactate analyzers. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the prognostic accuracy of plasma L-lactate measurements in calves with acute abdominal emergencies before and during the initial therapeutic period after surgical intervention. A prospective observational study was carried out involving 83 hospitalized calves up to an age of 7 mo, which required surgical intervention for reasons of an acute abdominal emergency such as gastrointestinal ileus or peritonitis. Plasma l-lactate (L-LAC) concentrations were determined immediately before initiation of surgery and 6, 12, 24, 48, and 72 h later. The outcome of calves was evaluated 3 mo after discharge by a phone call to the farmer, and a positive outcome was defined if the calf was still alive and the owner was satisfied with the animal's postsurgical progress. A total of 29% of calves were discharged from the hospital and the proportion of calves with a positive outcome after the 3-mo period was 24%. At all sampling times during the first 48 h after initiation of surgical intervention, calves with a negative outcome had significantly higher L-LAC than calves with a positive outcome. A binary logistic regression analysis indicated that the odds for a negative outcome during the 3-mo observation period increased by a factor of 1.23 [95% confidence interval (CI): 1.04-1.44] for every mmol/L increase of L-LAC before initiation of surgical intervention, but by a factor of 5.29 (95% CI: 1.69-16.6) and 5.92 (95% CI: 1.29-27.3) at 12 and 24 h, respectively. The largest area under the receiver operating characteristic curve for L-LAC was observed at 12 h (0.91; 95% CI: 0.83-0.99), and a cut-point of 2.75 mmol/L was identified that had a sensitivity and specificity for predicting a negative outcome of 68 and 100%, respectively. In conclusion, persistent hyper-l-lactatemia during the early postoperative period is a more reliable indicator for a negative outcome in calves with acute surgical abdominal emergencies than hyper-l-lactatemia before initiation of surgical intervention. Postoperative measurements of L-LAC are therefore a clinically useful tool to identify patients with an increased risk for a negative outcome at an early stage after surgical intervention was carried out.

Alopecia in Belgian Blue crossbred calves: a case series

Background

Alopecia is defined as the partial or complete absence of hair from areas of the body where it normally grows. Alopecia secondary to an infectious disease or parasitic infestation is commonly seen in cattle. It can also have metabolic causes, for example in newborn calves after a disease event such as diarrhoea. In the article, the investigation of a herd problem of acquired alopecia in Belgian Blue (BB) crossbred calves is described.

Case presentation

Several BB crossbred calves had presented with moderate to severe non-pruritic alopecia in a single small herd located in Southern Germany. The referring veterinarian had ruled out infectious causes, including parasitic infection and had supplemented calves with vitamins (vitamins A, B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B7, B9, B12, C, and K3) orally. Results of the diagnostic workup at the Clinic for Ruminants are presented for three affected calves and findings from a farm visit are discussed. Because of these investigations, an additional four calves were brought to the referral clinic within the first week of life, and before onset of alopecia, in order to study the course of the condition; however, these calves never developed any signs of alopecia during their clinic stay.

Conclusions

Because all other plausible differential diagnoses were ruled out during our investigation, we concluded that the documented alopecia was due to malabsorption of dietary fat and consecutive disruption of lipid metabolism leading to telogen or anagen effluvium. In this particular case, this was caused by a mixing error of milk replacer in conjunction with insufficiently tempered water. We conclude that nutritional, management or environmental factors alone can lead to moderate to severe alopecia in calves in the absence of a prior or concurrent disease event or infectious cause.

A systematic review and meta-analyses of risk factors associated with lameness in dairy cows

BACKGROUND

Lameness in dairy cows has been an ongoing concern of great relevance to animal welfare and productivity in modern dairy production. Many studies have examined associations between various factors related to housing, management, and the individual animal and the occurrence of lameness. The objective of this systematic review was to answer the research question "what are risk factors associated with lameness in dairy cows that are housed in free stall barns or tie stall facilities". Furthermore, we performed a synthesis of current evidence on certain risk factors by means of a meta-analysis to illustrate the strength of their association with bovine lameness.

RESULTS

Following pre-defined procedures and inclusion criteria in accordance with the PRISMA statement, two observers independently included 53 articles out of a pool of 1941 articles which had been retrieved by a broad literature research in a first step. 128 factors that have been associated with lameness were identified in those papers. Meta-analyses were conducted for five factors presented in six different studies: Body condition score, presence of claw overgrowth, days in milk, herd size, and parity. Results indicated that a body condition score of ≤2.5/5 is associated with increased odds of lameness. A higher risk of being lame was found for the presence of claw overgrowth, the first 120 days in milk, larger herd sizes, and increasing parity. Throughout the study, we encountered profound difficulties in retrieving data and information of sufficient quality from primary articles as well as in recovering comparable studies.

CONCLUSIONS

We learned that an abundance of literature on bovine lameness exists. To adequately address a problem of this importance to both animal welfare and economic viability, solid evidence is required in the future to develop effective intervention strategies. Therefore, a consistent working definition of lameness and specific risk factors should be an option to consider.

[Long bone fractures in cattle: A retrospective study of treatment and outcome in 194 cases]

INTRODUCTION

The present retrospective study investigated the localization, cause, treatment and healing of long bone fractures in cattle. Over a period of ten years, medical records of 194 cattle of all ages with a long bone fracture, presented at the Clinic for Ruminants with Ambulatory and Herd Health Services at LMU Munich, were evaluated. The majority of patients (n = 131, 67.5%) were younger than two weeks of age. Of these, 118 calves sustained the fracture on the day of birth (60.8%). An obstetrical assistance was found in 57.4% (n = 58) of birth-related cases as a fracture cause. The femur was most frequently affected in calves aged up to two weeks (n = 35; 26.7%). The second most frequent fractures occurred in the metacarpus (n = 31; 22.9%) in this age group, followed by metatarsus (n = 28; 21.4%) and tibia (n = 27; 20.6%). Fractures of the antebrachium (n = 9; 6.9%) and the humerus were rare (n = 1; 0.8%). A total of 194 patients were diagnosed with 50 femur fractures (25.8%), 53 metacarpal fractures (27.3%), 43 metatarsal fractures (22.2%), 30 tibial fractures (15.5%), 11 antebrachial fractures (5.7%) and 7 humeral fractures (3.6%). Of the 194 animals, 78 (40.2%) had to be euthanized, 42 of them (53.8%) without treatment. In 150 patients, treatment was initiated, of which 110 patients (73.3%) were dismissed healthy from the clinic. Among the conservative treatment methods were stall rest, casts, casts combined with a U-shaped metal rail (walking casts) and the Thomas splint. Surgical therapy (internal fixation with plates or screws, transfixation pin casts) was used to treat 65 animals (33.5%). While 86.9% (74 out of 85) of the conservatively treated animals left the clinic alive, it were only 58.1% (36 out of 65) animals after surgical treatment. In the newborn calves, colostrum supply had a significant effect on the success of the treatment. If the gamma-glutamyl transferase concentration was below 200 IU/L in the calves aged under 4 days, the healing rate was significantly different from the cure rate of sufficiently immunized patients (26.9% (7 out of 26) vs. 65.3% (47 out of 72), P = 0.001).

Prognostic value of preoperative plasma l-lactate concentrations in calves with acute abdominal emergencies

Acute abdominal emergencies in calves due to abomasal disorders, gastrointestinal ileus, or peritonitis are characterized by a rapid disease progression and usually require immediate surgical intervention. Those conditions are associated with a guarded prognosis, and the aim of the present study was to assess the prognostic relevance of preoperatively measured plasma l-lactate concentrations (l-LAC) in a large study population of calves with a broad spectrum of acute abdominal emergencies. For the purpose of this study, the medical records of 587 calves admitted to a veterinary teaching hospital over a 10-yr period were analyzed retrospectively. Plasma l-LAC was measured as part of a routinely performed biochemistry panel before initiation of surgical intervention. Hyper-l-lactatemia (plasma l-LAC >2.2 mmol/L) was evident in 75% of calves, and the overall survival rate until hospital discharge was 31%. Calves with a negative outcome were younger (median: 3.4 vs. 6 wk) and had higher plasma l-LAC (median: 4.96 vs. 3.09 mmol/L) than calves with a positive outcome. At the individual diagnosis level, l-LAC was associated with mortality in calves with a diagnosis of mesenteric torsion, right-sided dilated abomasum, small intestinal volvulus, or paralytic ileus, but not in calves suffering from peritonitis, malformations, abomasal volvulus, bloat, or small intestinal intussusceptions. Considering the whole study population, the area under the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve for plasma l-LAC was 0.66 [95% confidence interval (CI): 0.61-0.70]. A classification tree analysis indicated that l-LAC >8.84 mmol/L and age categories of <3 wk and <1 wk were independent predictors of mortality. The area under the ROC curve of this model was 0.75 (95% CI: 0.71-0.79) and the resulting sensitivity and specificity for the prediction of nonsurvival at the optimal probability cut-point of 0.62 were 67.7 and 76.6%, respectively. In conclusion, hyper-l-lactatemia is common in calves suffering from acute abdominal emergencies. Markedly increased plasma l-LAC is associated with an increased mortality risk, but it is not possible to reliably predict the outcome of affected calves based on a single, preoperative measurement. However, a clinically important finding of this study was that the ability to predict a negative outcome is improved when the age of the calf is considered in addition to plasma l-LAC.

Parasite control in organic cattle farming: Management and farmers' perspectives from six European countries

Organic ruminant production is expanding in the EU, but parasite management remains a constant challenge. Mandatory outdoor access for all age groups can increase exposure to pasture borne parasites, whilst restrictions in the prophylactic use of anthelmintics can limit parasite control. The scientific community has been working to deliver effective parasite control strategies and alternative approaches in order to slow down the development of anthelmintic resistance (AR). However, the current parasite control practices and overall awareness with regards to AR and alternative approaches on farms are largely unknown and may be causing a knowledge gap between the scientific and farming communities. Therefore, a structured survey was conducted in six European countries (Switzerland, Germany, Denmark, Netherlands, Lithuania, Sweden) to provide basic data on practices, management and farmers' perspectives for grazing and parasite control (gastrointestinal worms and liver flukes) on organic cattle farms. Overall, 375 surveys were collected (282 dairy and 93 beef farms) in 2015-2016, and analysed descriptively. Additionally, surveys from the 228 dairy farms were assessed using a double-hurdle adoption model to identify the factors involved in the decision to drench against gastrointestinal parasites. Generally, there are prominent differences between countries, with monitoring methods differing especially, which has important implications in terms of knowledge transfer. For example, media warning was the most common method in DE, while antibody testing in bulk tank milk was the common method in NL. In other countries, clinical signs (diarrhoea, hair coat quality, and reduced weight or yield) and liver condemnation data were used frequently. In general, organic farmers from the six participating countries indicated that they would accept alternative approaches despite greater cost and labour. The likelihood of drenching were higher on farms with smaller farm areas, higher number of young stock and total livestock units and farms where faecal egg counts were used to monitor the parasites. In conclusion, it was evident that grazing and parasite management varied between the countries even though they operate under the same basic principles. Parasite management strategies must therefore be country specific and disseminated with appropriate methods.

[Paramphistomidosis - an overview on epidemiology and clinical signs]

Paramphistosis is a globally occurring parasitic disease in various ruminants caused by a range of rumen flukes (including Paramphistomum cervi, Calicophoron daubneyi and Paramphistomum leydeni). In Europe, local occurrences of rumen fluke infection in domestic and wild ruminants have been described for decades. There is now evidence that paramphistomidosis is gaining in importance, because high prevalence rates were reported in the United Kingdom, Ireland, France, Spain, Belgium and The Netherlands. Current prevalence data from Germany are lacking. In recent investigations in northern Germany, Hesse and Bavaria, C. daubneyi was detected, which is currently the most prevalent rumen fluke in Europe. The development of therumen fluke is linked to aquatic snails as intermediate hosts. C. daubneyi and the liver fluke Fasciola hepatica share in the course of their development the same intermediate snail host, Galba truncatula. The definitive ruminant host takes up infective metacercaria. In the small intestine, the young flukes excyst and attach to the duodenum. Subsequently, they migrate to the rumen, where, as adults, they begin to release eggs. The infection can lead to severe diarrhea during the intestinal phase and death at high infection intensity. Ruminal paramphistomidosis is subclinical in most cases. Currently, coproscopic detection by the sedimentation method is the available diagnostic tool. Because of similar morphology, there is a risk of confusion with the eggs of the liver fluke F. hepatica. Paramphistomidosis can be treated with oxyclozanide. There are conflicting results regarding the effectiveness of other drugs. Therefore, prophylaxis of this parasitosis is important. Because of the similar epidemiology, control recommendations are based on those for the prevention of fasciolosis. Whether paramphistomidosis is also an emerging infectious disease in Germany cannot be currently assessed.

[Possibilities of diagnostics in unilateral fibular-nerve-paresis in a calf]

INTRODUCTION

The present case report describes the workup of unilateral fibular-nerve-paresis in a female neonatal Fleckvieh calf. The calf was admitted to the Clinic for Ruminants with Ambulatory and Herd Health Services, Ludwig- Maximilians-University Munich as part of an investigation into a herd problem. The herd problem was presented as movement disorder in neonatal calves with an incidence of 10%. A physical, hematological, and musculoskeletal, as well as neurological examination was performed, and a diagnosis of a left-sided paresis of the fibular-nerve (N. fibularis) was made. Further special examinations including sonography, magnetic resonance tomography and muscle, lymph node, and nerve biopsies of the affected limb of the calf were also carried out. Advanced imaging examinations suggested the presence of inflammatory changes caudal to the left stifle joint in the region of the fibular nerve. Histopathological examination of the nerve biopsy confirmed the presence of a fibular-nerve-neuritis. Inflammatory changes in the ischiocrural-muscles were most likely injection-induced, consistent with the history of the veterinary practitioner and the examination results.

[Herd health problems with a focus on potential involvement of Clostridium botulinum in dairies in Bavaria. - A survey among veterinarians]

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the perceptions of Bavarian bovine practitioners in regard to ailments that could potentially be associated with chronic Clostridium botulinum infections.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A questionnaire-based survey consisting of two parts was conducted via telephone. The questionnaire contained five main inclusion criteria and seven further criteria for inclusion in the second, special part of the study. The main focus was on diseases suspected to be associated with chronic Clostridium botulinum infections. For the interview in the special part, for each practice, the farm that fulfilled the most of the main criteria was selected.

RESULTS

In the general section of the questionnaire, 38 (37%) of the 104 participants stated not to have farms with any of the previously indicated disease patterns in their practice. A total of 532 operations (5% of all managed dairies) were classified as a problem facility that had to deal with the aforementioned main inclusion criteria diseases. The most frequently stated on-farm problems were an increased number of recumbent cows (73 %), lameness or cases of ataxia (70 %), udder problems (69 %), metabolic disorders (68 %), high incidence of chronically ill animals (66 %) and high culling rates (66 %). The housing conditions of dairy cows were assessed to be "mediocre" or "poor" in 49 % of dairies. Feeding management was regarded as "moderately good", "good" or "very good" by 91 % of participants. Testing for Clostridium spp. was performed on 11 farms and positive results were found in seven cases.

CONCLUSION

Livestock veterinarians in Bavaria are frequently confronted with an abundance of animal health-related issues on dairy farms. However, even on farms on which there were signs according to the literature of clostridial infection, rather husbandry-related problems were suspec -ted in most cases.

Clinical findings and diagnostic procedures in 270 small ruminants with obstructive urolithiasis

Background

Details of the clinical signs of obstructive urolithiasis in male small ruminants have not been documented in a large population.

Objective

To describe the clinical presentation and diagnostic procedures in a large group of small ruminants with urolithiasis.

Animals

Two hundred and seventy small ruminants (158 sheep and 112 goats).

Methods

Retrospective study of 270 cases identified based on clinical records.

Results

81.2% affected goats were castrated and 91.7% sheep were intact males; 65.5% of the animals had been sick ≤2 days before referral. Common abnormalities included dysuria (93.6%), indigestion (84.4%), reduced general state of health (79.5%), signs of pain (73%), increased heart and respiratory rates (53.6% and 39.1%), and azotemia (89.4%). Blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and creatinine concentrations were strongly correlated (r² = 0.81). Hypochloremia (52.2%), hyponatremia (43.3%), hypophosphatemia (52.4%), and abnormal potassium concentrations (26.2% hypokalemia and 24.5% hyperkalemia) were the most common serum electrolyte imbalances. Packed cell volume (PCV), plasma proteins, potassium, BUN, and creatinine concentrations were significantly increased in animals with uroperitoneum. Ultrasonography allowed for confirmation of diagnosis in 83.9% of the cases (135/161 with sufficient available information), uroliths were visible on 34 of 56 plain radiographs.

Conclusions and Clinical Importance

Our study confirmed that clinical and ultrasonographic examinations are sufficient to diagnose urolithiasis. Clinical signs can be divided into an early stage with discrete unspecific clinical signs, a painful stage with frequent straining, expression of pain and moderately reduced general condition, and an advanced stage with a markedly reduced general condition and eventually recumbency.

Zinc Deficiency-Like Syndrome in Fleckvieh Calves: Clinical and Pathological Findings and Differentiation from Bovine Hereditary Zinc Deficiency

Background

Zinc deficiency‐like (ZDL) syndrome is an inherited defect of Fleckvieh calves, with striking similarity to bovine hereditary zinc deficiency (BHZD). However, the causative mutation in a phospholipase D4 encoding gene (PLD4) shows no connection to zinc metabolism.

Objectives

To describe clinical signs, laboratory variables, and pathological findings of ZDL syndrome and their utility to differentiate ZDL from BHZD and infectious diseases with similar phenotype.

Animals

Nine hospitalized calves with crusting dermatitis and confirmed mutation in PLD4 and medical records from 25 calves with crusting dermatitis or suspected zinc deficiency.

Methods

Prospective and retrospective case series.

Results

The 9 calves (age: 5–53 weeks) displayed a moderate to severe crusting dermatitis mainly on the head, ventrum, and joints. Respiratory and digestive tract inflammations were frequently observed. Zinc supplementation did not lead to remission of clinical signs in 4 calves. Laboratory variables revealed slight anemia in 8 calves, hypoalbuminemia in 6 calves, but reduced serum zinc concentrations in only 3 calves. Mucosal erosions/ulcerations were present in 7 calves and thymus atrophy or reduced thymic weights in 8 calves. Histologically, skin lesions were indistinguishable from BHZD. Retrospective analysis of medical records revealed the presence of this phenotype since 1988 and pedigree analysis revealed a common ancestor of several affected calves.

Conclusions and Clinical Importance

ZDL syndrome should be suspected in Fleckvieh calves with crusting dermatitis together with diarrhea or respiratory tract inflammations without response to oral zinc supplementation. Definite diagnosis requires molecular genetic confirmation of the PLD4 mutation.

Epidemiology, genetic variants and clinical course of natural infections with Anaplasma phagocytophilum in a dairy cattle herd

Background

Anaplasma phagocytophilum is an obligate intracellular, tick-transmitted bacterium that causes granulocytic anaplasmosis in humans and several mammalian species including domestic ruminants where it is called tick-borne fever (TBF). Different genetic variants exist but their impact with regard to putative differences in host associations and pathogenicity are not yet completely understood.

Methods

Natural infections with A. phagocytophilum in a dairy cattle herd in Germany were investigated over one pasture season by using serology, haematology, blood chemistry and polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Sequence analysis of partial 16S rRNA, groEL, msp2 and msp4 genes of A. phagocytophilum was carried out in order to trace possible genetic variants and their relations between cattle, roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and ticks (Ixodes ricinus) in this area.

Results

In total 533 samples from 58 cattle, 310 ticks, three roe deer and one wild boar were examined. Our results show (i) typical clinical symptoms of TBF in first-time infected heifers, such as high fever, reduced milk yield, lower limb oedema and typical haematological and biochemical findings such as severe leukopenia, erythropenia, neutropenia, lymphocytopenia, monocytopenia, a significant increase in creatinine and bilirubin and a significant decrease in serum albumin, γ-GT, GLDH, magnesium and calcium; (ii) a high overall prevalence of A. phagocytophilum infections in this herd as 78.9% (15/19) of the naïve heifers were real-time PCR-positive and 75.9% (44/58) of the entire herd seroconverted; and (iii) a high level of sequence variation in the analysed genes with five variants of the 16S rRNA gene, two variants of the groEL gene, three variants of the msp2 gene and four variants in the msp4 gene with certain combinations of these variants.

Conclusions

In cattle particular combinations of the genetic variants of A. phagocytophilum occurred, whereas three roe deer showed different variants altogether. This is indicative for a sympatric circulation of variants in this small geographical region (< 1 km²). Both re- and superinfections with A. phagocytophilum were observed in five cattle showing that infection does not result in sterile immunity. For prevention of clinical cases we suggest pasturing of young, not pregnant heifers to reduce economical losses.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s13071-017-2570-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

[Anthelmintic resistance in ruminants: development, diagnostics, and procedures]

Anthelmintic resistance of gastrointestinal nematodes in small ruminants, but also in cattle and horses, is now found worldwide. The reason for increasing anthelmintic resistance is, in particular, the extensive use of all the anthelmintic agents available on the market. A non-targeted use leads to the selection of naturally occurring resistance genes within parasite populations. The most practical method for evaluating the efficacy of an anthelmintic is the fecal egg-count reduction test. To reduce the rate of anthelmintic resistance development, the available active substances must be applied less and in a targeted manner. When applying targeted (selective) treatment, part of the herd is left untreated. Therefore, it is necessary to identify the animals that require treatment for health or economic reasons. To decide on anthelmintic treatment, findings can be collected from single animals or from a group of animals in a herd. To determine which groups of animals are to be treated within a herd (targeted treatment), pooled fecal samples (cattle and small ruminants), serum pepsinogen concentration (cattle), or Ostertagia ostertagi antibodies in the bulk milk (cattle) can be analyzed. For individual animal (targeted selective) treatment, criteria including fecal egg count (cattle and small ruminants), conjuctival color as an indicator for infection with Haemonchus contortus (FAMACHA^®, small ruminants), body condition in adult animals (small ruminants), weight gain in juvenile animals (cattle and small ruminants), and the consistency of the feces (small ruminants) are used. These decision criteria can also be combined to enhance the informative value. Furthermore, an efficacy test of the anthelmintics used should be performed regularly at the beginning of the pasture season. During the pasture season, a low infection pressure should be maintained by pasture management strategies. The goal of sustainable parasite management is the reduction of anthelmintic treatment while maintaining the productivity and health of the animals and thus a longer effectiveness of the available drugs.

Fatal proteinuric kidney disease in a 30-month-old German Fleckvieh heifer caused by unilateral focal segmental glomerulosclerosis subsequent to a non-functional counterpart kidney

INTRODUCTION

A case of secondary focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS) in a heifer is presented. A 30-month-old female German Fleckvieh heifer showed deterioration of the general condition, a poor nutritional status, proteinuria, hypoalbuminemia, and renal azotemia. Pathologically, it was diagnosed with unilateral hydronephrosis, and contralateral renal fibrosis with numerous cysts. Histologically, the fibrotic kidney showed FSGS, hyaline reabsorption droplets in proximal tubular epithelial cells, interstitial fibrosis, and tubulointerstitial inflammation. Apart from that, thrombotic microangiopathy (TMA) was seen in few renal arteries and meningeal arterioles. Pathogenesis of FSGS secondary to unilateral renal parenchymal loss (hydronephrosis) and TMA is discussed.

Existence of bovine neonatal pancytopenia before the year 2005? Retrospective evaluation of 215 cases of haemorrhagic diathesis in cattle

Haemorrhagic diathesis (HD) in cattle is a relatively rare syndrome that can have many different causes. With the occurrence of bovine neonatal pancytopenia (BNP) in 2007, the number of cases of HD in cattle has increased. This led to an enhanced interest in diseases presenting with bleeding disorders. The possible causes of HD in cattle, the clinical findings, and the course of various diseases are described and evaluated. Furthermore, we determined whether cases of BNP occurred before the introduction of the vaccine Pregsure BVD since its widespread use was associated with the syndrome. Records of 215 cases of HD in cattle that had been referred to the Clinic for Ruminants with Ambulatory and Herd Health Services at the Centre for Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Ludwig Maximilian University, Munich, between 1982 and 2014 were evaluated. The two most commonly diagnosed diseases were BNP (n = 95) and septicaemia (n = 35), with fatality rates of 82% and 66%, respectively. In 27 (13%) cases, no clear cause for the HD could be designated. Statistically significant differences were found with regard to the course of the various disorders and the clinical findings. A receiver operating characteristic analysis of thrombocyte counts of affected animals at the time of arrival at the clinic did not provide any predictive information on disease outcome. Two cases of HD occurred before the introduction of Pregsure BVD (1989, 1991). In both cases, clinical, haematological, and pathological findings were identical to BNP. The cause of HD in these two cases could not be determined retrospectively.

Prevalence of pasture-associated metazoal endoparasites in Bavarian dairy goat herds and farmers' approaches to parasite control

The majority of dairy goat farms in Bavaria operate pasture-based systems. Endoparasites are therefore a common problem affecting health and productivity of these herds. Pooled faecal samples from 37 commercial dairy goat farms in Bavaria were examined by modified McMaster, flotation, sedimentation and Baermann funnel techniques. In addition, a questionnaire was used to gather information on farmers' perceptions and parasite management efforts. The average trichostrongyle faecal egg count across the 37 farms was 620 epg, with a median of 450 epg (1st quartile: 135 epg; 3rd quartile: 930 epg; range: < 30 to 3090 epg). Fasciola hepatica eggs were detected on four farms, Moniezia expansa eggs on one, Muellerius capillaris larvae on 13 and Dicrocoelium dendriticum eggs in none of the samples. Following coproculture third stage larvae of trichostrongyle species were identified morphologically. Sufficient larval numbers were obtained from samples from 23 farms. Haemonchus spp. was the most abundant larval genus and accounted for 30.4% of all larvae examined (n = 4868), followed by Trichostrongylus spp. (27.5%), Teladorsagia spp. (21.8%) and Oesophagostomum spp./Chabertia spp. (19.0%; these two genera were not differentiated). Further nematodes were identified according to their egg morphology: Nematodirus spp were present on nine farms, Skrjabinema spp. on nine, Trichuris spp. on five and Strongyloides spp. were not detected in any of the samples. The questionnaire results indicated a widespread lack of farmer awareness of appropriate parasite management and treatment measures. Farmer and veterinary education is therefore important to avoid future resistance problems caused by under-dosing or inappropriate treatments.

Validation of an interactive map assessing the potential spread of Galba truncatula as intermediate host of Fasciola hepatica in Switzerland

Bovine fasciolosis, caused by Fasciola hepatica, is widespread in Switzerland. The risk regions were modelled in 2008 by an interactive map, showing the monthly potential risk of transmission of F. hepatica in Switzerland. As this map is based on a mathematical model, the aim of the present study was to evaluate the interactive map by means of a field survey taking different data sources into account. It was found that the interactive map has a sensitivity of 40.7-88.9%, a specificity of 11.4-18.8%, a positive predictive value of 26.7-51.4%, and a negative predictive value of 13.1-83.6%, depending on the source of the data. In conclusion, the grid of the interactive map (100 x 100 m) does not reflect enough detail and the underlying model of the interactive map is lacking transmission data.

[Nasal, pulmonary, and abomasal aspergillosis (Aspergillus fumigatus) in a calf]

This study presents a case of nasal aspergillosis in a 17-days old calf (German Fleckvieh): it had been admitted moribund to the Clinic for Ruminants of the University of Munich, and died after a short time. Pathologically, the calf was diagnosed with purulent-necrotizing rhinitis, necrotizing pneumonia, and diphtheroid-necrotizing abomasitis. Histologically, fungal elements were found in all the localizations mentioned before, and mycologically, Aspergillus fumigatus was cultured from nasal cavity. Pathogenesis is discussed.

Risk factors for the development of hypokalemia in neonatal diarrheic calves

Background

Neonatal diarrheic calves have a clear negative potassium balance because of intestinal losses and decreased milk intake but in the presence of acidemia, they usually show normokalemic or hyperkalemic plasma concentrations.

Objectives

To assess whether marked hypokalemia occurs in response to the correction of acidemia and dehydration and to identify factors that are associated with this condition.

Animals

Eighty‐three calves with a clinical diagnosis of neonatal diarrhea.

Methods

Prospective cohort study. Calves were treated according to a clinical protocol using an oral electrolyte solution and commercially available packages of 8.4% sodium bicarbonate, 0.9% saline and 40% dextrose infusion solutions.

Results

The proportion of hypokalemic calves after 24 hours of treatment (19.3%) was twice as great as it was on admission to the hospital. Plasma K⁺ after 24 hours of treatment was not significantly correlated to venous blood pH values at the same time but positively correlated to venous blood pH values on admission (r = 0.51, P < .001). Base excess on admission (Odds ratio [OR] = 0.81, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.70–0.94), duration of diarrhea (OR = 1.37, 95% CI = 1.05–1.80), milk intake during hospitalization (OR = 0.54, 95% CI = 0.37–0.79) and plasma sodium concentrations after 24 hours (OR = 1.12, 95% CI = 1.01–1.25) were identified to be independently associated (P < .05) with a hypokalemic state after 24 hours of treatment.

Conclusions and Clinical Importance

Findings of this study suggest that marked depletion of body potassium stores is evident in diarrheic calves that suffered from marked metabolic acidosis, have a low milk intake and a long history of diarrhea.

[The intradermal tuberculin test: literature, directive and implementation in practice]

OBJECTIVE

Because of an increase in the number of cases of bovine tuberculosis in southern Germany (Allgäu region, mainly in the administrative district Swabia) during recent years, blanket tuberculosis testing was resumed in this region. The aim of this study was to review the veterinarians' current knowledge regarding the technique of the intradermal tuberculin test. As a consequence, a guide with precise instructions for the execution and interpretation of intradermal tuberculin testing in cattle based on the current legislation should be created.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Using a questionnaire, farm-animal practitioners' knowledge and experiences of intradermal tuberculin testing were surveyed, collected and evaluated. Legislative texts on tuberculosis (particularly testing of tuberculosis) were evaluated in their current and previous versions, and compared with the experiences reported by the veterinarians.

RESULTS

A total of 137 veterinarians participated and 130 returned questionnaires could be evaluated. Forty-four of the 130 participants were involved in tuberculosis testing when the survey was performed. Of these 44 questionnaires, 42 were incorporated in the final evaluation. The majority of the veterinarians perform the intradermal tuberculosis test as laid down in the Commission Regulation (EC) no. 1226/2002 of 8 July 2002 amending Annex B to Council Directive 64/432/EEC. However, many practitioners do not comply with the requirements of the Commission Regulation (EC) no. 1226/2002 when evaluating the results of the intradermal tuberculosis test. Veterinarians showing the least accordance with required standards only test single animals or work in areas other than Swabia.

CONCLUSIONS

In areas severely affected by tuberculosis, the technique of intradermal tuberculosis testing is performed almost as demanded by the Commission Regulation (EC) no. 1226/2002. However, a more uniform and careful approach should be sought when monitoring the results. The guide designed in the context of this study can help to improve the performance of the intradermal tuberculosis test. The information from the literature review also shows that there is currently no standardized method of intradermal tuberculosis testing.