When and where mortality occurs throughout the annual cycle changes with age in a migratory bird: individual vs population implications

The annual cycle of most animals is structured into discrete stages, such as breeding, migration and dispersal. While there is growing appreciation of the importance of different stages of an organism’s annual cycle for its fitness and population dynamics, almost nothing is known about if and how such seasonal effects can change through a species lifespan. Here, we take advantage of the opportunity offered by a long-term satellite/GPS-tracking study and a reliable method of remote death-detection to show that certain stages of both the annual and life cycle of a migratory long-lived raptor, the Black kite Milvus migrans, may represent sensitive bottlenecks for survival. In particular, migratory journeys caused bursts of concentrated-mortality throughout life, but the relative importance of stage-specific survival changed with age. On the other hand, the balance between short-stages of high mortality and long-stages of low mortality made population-growth similarly dependent on all portions of the annual cycle. Our results illustrate how the population dynamics of migratory organisms can be inextricably linked to ecological pressures balanced over multiple stages of the annual cycle and thus multiple areas of the globe, suggesting the frequent need for challenging conservation strategies targeting all portions of a species year-round range.

The extent, frequency and ecological functions of food wasting by parrots

Anecdotic citations of food wasting have been described for parrots, but we lack a comprehensive knowledge about the extent of this behaviour, and its ecological and evolutionary implications. Here, we combine experimental and observational approaches to evaluate the spatial, temporal, typological and taxonomic extent of food wasting by parrots, to identify the ecological and evolutionary factors driving food wasting, and to assess the incidence of two ecological functions derived from food wasting, such as food facilitation to other animal species and secondary seed dispersal. We found that food wasting is a widespread behaviour found in all the studied parrot species. However, the proportion of food wasted differed among species and throughout the year. Parrots wasted more food during the non-breeding season, when they relied on exotic plants and on unripe fruits or seeds. We also recorded 86 animal species feeding on the food wasted by parrots, 27 of which potentially acted as secondary seed dispersers. Overall, our study emphasizes the universality of food wasting among parrots, and the important implications that this behaviour may have for the species involved (i.e., the parrot, the plant, the other species feeding on wasted food), and for the functioning of the whole ecosystem.

Protein electrophoresis in Andean condors (Vultur gryphus): Reference values and differences between wild and rehabilitating individuals

The study of wildlife health greatly contributes to understanding population dynamics and detecting conservation threats. The determination of the different fractions of plasma proteins (proteinogram) is an important laboratory tool to study wildlife health. The aim of this study was to characterize protein electrophoresis in wild Andean condors (Vultur gryphus) from north-western Patagonia and to evaluate differences according to age and sex classes. Once reference values of wild, apparently healthy individuals, were established, we compared these values to those of individuals received at the Buenos Aires Zoo in Argentina for rehabilitation due to various health problems. Reference proteinograms from wild Andean condors differed only in the α 1 and β 2-fractions between sex categories. Males showed higher concentrations of these protein fractions than females. We found clear differences between wild birds and rehabilitating individuals. Total proteins, globulins, α 1-globulins, total α-globulins, β 2-globulins, total β-globulins, and γ-globulins were significantly higher in rehabilitating than in wild individuals, whereas albumin, α 2, and β1-globulins were similar between these groups. The albumin/globulin ratio, as a general indicator of health, was significantly lower in rehabilitating than in wild individuals. The results indicate the effects on different protein fractions of pathologic processes occurring in individuals undergoing rehabilitation. Our results provide useful insights, contributing to improving diagnoses and prognoses in this species. This information may also be useful to assess the health status of Andean condors in studies of wild populations and for comparisons with other bird species.

Decreasing but still high levels of halogenated flame retardants in wetland birds in central Spain

The occurrence of classical and emerging halogenated flame retardants in bird samples collected between 2010-17 from the Castrejón reservoir (central Spain) was studied. Different wetland bird samples were analysed, including unhatched bird eggs and liver of dead nestlings. Polybrominated diphenylethers (PBDEs) were detected in all the samples at high concentration values, with levels up to 5167 ng/g lw. Dechloranes were found in 78% of analysed samples, but at lower concentration levels, between not detected (nd) and 2153 ng/g lw. The time trend evaluation over the sampling period showed an approximately 50% decline in mean concentrations of PBDEs. However, the most recent data for PBDEs (2016-17) still indicate that, in some cases, and based on reported LOECs, wetland birds were exposed to PBDE concentrations that are associated with possible ecological hazards.

A Multicentre and stratified study of the attitude of medical students towards organ donation in Spain

INTRODUCTION

Medical students represent a new generation of medical thought, and if they have a favourable attitude towards organ donation this will greatly encourage its promotion.

OBJECTIVE

To analyse the attitude of medical students in Spanish universities towards the donation of their own organs and to determine the factors affecting this attitude.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Type of study: A sociological, interdisciplinary, multicentre, and observational study in Spain.

STUDY POPULATION

Students studying a degree in medicine enrolled in Spain (n = 34,000).

SAMPLE SIZE

A sample of 9598 students (confidence of 99% and precision of ±1%), stratified by geographical area and academic year. Instrument of measurement: A validated questionnaire of attitude towards organ donation and transplantation (PCID-DTO RIOS) was self-administered and completed anonymously.

RESULTS

The questionnaire completion rate was 95.7% (n = 9.275). 80% were in favour of donation, 2% against and 18% were undecided. The following main variables were related to a favourable attitude: being of the female sex (Odds Ratio = 1.739); being in the sixth year of the degree (OR = 2.506); knowing a donor (OR = 1.346); having spoken about the subject with one's family (OR = 2.132) and friends (OR = 1.333); having a family circle that is in favour, more specifically, having a father (OR = 1.841), mother (OR = 2.538) or partner in favour (OR = 2.192); being a blood donor (OR = 2.824); acceptance of the mutilation of the body if it were necessary (OR = 2.958); and being an atheist or an agnostic (OR = 1.766).

CONCLUSIONS

Spanish medical students generally have a favourable attitude towards organ donation, although 20% are not in favour.

Tracking data and retrospective analyses of diet reveal the consequences of loss of marine subsidies for an obligate scavenger, the Andean condor

Over the last century, marine mammals have been dramatically reduced in the world's oceans. We examined evidence that this change caused dietary and foraging pattern shifts of the Andean condor (Vultur gryphus) in Patagonia. We hypothesized that, after the decrease in marine mammals and the increase in human use of coastlines, condor diet changed to a more terrestrial diet, which in turn influenced their foraging patterns. We evaluated the diet by means of stable isotope analysis (δ¹³C, δ¹⁵N and δ³⁴S) of current (last decade) and historical (1841-1933) feathers. We further evaluated the movement patterns of 23 condors using satellite tracking of individuals. Condors reduced their use of marine-derived prey in recent compared with historical times from 33 ± 13% to less than 8 ± 3% respectively; however, they still breed close to the coast. The average distance between the coast and nests was 62.5 km, but some nests were located close to the sea (less than 5 km). Therefore, some birds must travel up to 86 km from nesting sites, crossing over the mountain range to find food. The worldwide reduction in marine mammal carcasses, especially whales, may have major consequences on the foraging ecology of scavengers, as well as on the flux of marine inputs within terrestrial ecosystems.

In silico Approach for Unveiling the Glycoside Hydrolase Activities in Faecalibacterium prausnitzii Through a Systematic and Integrative Large-Scale Analysis

This work presents a novel in silico approach to the prediction and characterization of the glycolytic capacities of the beneficial intestinal bacterium Faecalibacterium prausnitzii. Available F. prausnitzii genomes were explored taking the glycolytic capacities of F. prausnitzii SL3/3 and F. prausnitzii L2-6 as reference. The comparison of the generated glycolytic profiles offered insights into the particular capabilities of F. prausnitzii SL3/3 and F. prausnitzii L2-6 as well as the potential of the rest of strains. Glycoside hydrolases were mostly detected in the pathways responsible for the starch and sucrose metabolism and the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites, but this analysis also identified some other potentially interesting, but still uncharacterized activities, such as several hexosyltransferases and some hydrolases. Gene neighborhood maps offered additional understanding of the genes coding for relevant glycoside hydrolases. Although information about the carbohydrate preferences of F. prausnitzii is scarce, the in silico metabolic predictions were consistent with previous knowledge about the impact of fermentable sugars on the growth promotion and metabolism of F. prausnitzii. So, while the predictions still need to be validated using culturing methods, the approach holds the potential to be reproduced and scaled to accommodate the analysis of other strains (or even families and genus) as well as other metabolic activities. This will allow the exploration of novel methodologies to design or obtain targeted probiotics for F. prausnitzii and other strains of interest.

Sensitization Toward Organ Donation Among Medical Students in Spanish Regions With More Than 50 Donors Per Million Population

The awareness of organ donation among health professionals is important at the time of transplant promotion. In this sense, the training and awareness of the professionals in training is fundamental.

OBJECTIVE

To analyze the differences in the attitude toward organ donation and the factors that condition it among medical students of regions with donation rates >50 donors per million population (pmp) with respect to those with rates <40 donor pmp.

METHOD

Population under study: medical students in Spanish universities. Database of the Collaborative International Donor Project, stratified by geographic area and academic course. The completion was anonymous and self-administered. Groups under study: Group 1 (n = 1136): students in universities of regions with >50 donors pmp. Group 2 (n = 2018): university students in regions with <40 donors pmp. Assessment instrument: attitude questionnaire for organ donation for transplant PCID-DTO-Ríos.

RESULTS

The attitude toward organ donation for transplantation is similar among students from the autonomous communities with >50 donors pmp and with <40 donors pmp. In group 1, 79% (n = 897) of students are in favor compared with 81% (n = 1625) of group 2 (P=.29). The psychosocial profile toward donation is similar in both groups relating to the following variables (P < .05): sex, having discussed transplantation with family and as a couple, considering the possibility of needing a transplant, involvement in prosocial activities, attitude toward the manipulation of corpses, knowledge of the brain death concept, and religion.

CONCLUSIONS

The awareness of organ donation in Spanish medical students is quite homogeneous and is not related to the local donation rates of each region.

Computational prediction of the bioactivity potential of proteomes based on expert knowledge

Advances in the field of genome sequencing have enabled a comprehensive analysis and annotation of the dynamics of the protein inventory of cells. This has been proven particularly rewarding for microbial cells, for which the majority of proteins are already accessible to analysis through automatic metagenome annotation. The large-scale in silico screening of proteomes and metaproteomes is key to uncover bioactivities of translational, clinical and biotechnological interest, and to help assign functions to certain proteins, such as those predicted as hypothetical. This work introduces a new method for the prediction of the bioactivity potential of proteomes/metaproteomes, supporting the discovery of functionally relevant proteins based on prior knowledge. This methodology complements functional annotation enrichment methods by allowing the assignment of functions to proteins annotated as hypothetical/putative/uncharacterised, as well as and enabling the detection of specific bioactivities and the recovery of proteins from defined taxa. This work shows how the new method can be applied to screen proteome and metaproteome sets to obtain predictions of clinical or biotechnological interest based on reference datasets. Notably, with this methodology, the large information files obtained after DNA sequencing or protein identification experiments can be associated for translational purposes that, in cases such as antibiotic-resistance pathogens or foodborne diseases, may represent changes in how these important and global health burdens are approached in the clinical practice. Finally, the Sequence-based Expert-driven pRoteome bioactivity Prediction EnvironmENT, a public Web service implemented in Scala functional programming style, is introduced as means to ensure broad access to the method as well as to discuss main implementation issues, such as modularity, extensibility and interoperability.

Scavenger birds exploiting rubbish dumps: Pathogens at the gates

Different bacteria are present in rubbish dumps used as food resources by various bird species. Birds may be good indicators of the presence of zoonotic diseases in these sites since they can be infected with zoonotic pathogens by foraging on organic waste, and can also act as carriers. We studied if foraging in rubbish dumps increases the occurrence of Salmonella spp. and Chlamydia psittaci in American black vultures (Coragyps atratus, hereafter black vultures) from northwest Patagonia. We compared these pathogens isolated from or detected in cloacae and oropharynx swabs in two different groups of black vultures: individuals trapped in (a) the Patagonian wild steppe and (b) in a rubbish dump. We found that black vultures are colonized by Salmonella spp. (particularly Salmonella enterica serotypes Typhi, Paratyphi A, Salmonella enterica subsp. arizonae) and Chlamydia psittaci. Interestingly, there were differences in the prevalence of Salmonella spp., especially Salmonella Typhi, between individuals foraging in the rubbish dump and the steppe, but not in the prevalence of Chlamydia psittaci. The pathogens isolated from black vultures may impact their health status but could also have health impacts in other bird species and even humans. In fact, Salmonella Typhi can cause severe disease in humans leading to death. Our results are globally relevant given that bacterial infections from rubbish dumps may affect different species exploiting these sites around the world. There is a need to better control pathogens in rubbish dumps to avoid the risk of infecting wildlife, which could act as potential dispersers and reservoirs of these pathogens.

Integrating population connectivity into pollution assessment: Overwintering mixing reveals flame retardant contamination in breeding areas in a migratory raptor

Determining the exposure and magnitude at which various pollutants are differentially assimilated at the breeding and non-breeding grounds of migratory wildlife is challenging. Here, the possibility of applying the migratory connectivity framework to understanding contamination in birds is illustrated by considering flame retardants in inviable eggs of a migratory raptor, the black kite (Milvus migrans). The occurrence and concentration of legacy and emerging compounds in eggs from the southeastern peri-urban area of Madrid city, central Spain, were compared with those from Doñana National Park in southern Spain. A much higher occurrence and concentration of multiple polybrominated diphenyl ethers and Dechlorane 602 were found in Madrid than Doñana, but the opposite patterns were found for Dechlorane Plus. Individuals from these and other breeding areas in western Europe showed a strong intermixing pattern over widespread wintering areas in Africa, as assessed by ringing recoveries and movements tracked by satellite devices. This diffuse migratory connectivity reveals breeding areas as the main contamination grounds. High contamination burdens sequestered in eggs point to rapid assimilation of these compounds before laying, associated with important emission sources in Madrid, especially landfills of partially incinerated urban refuse, and other anthropogenic operations. Diet composition regarding aquatic vs. terrestrial prey, and bioaccumulation and biomagnification processes are suggested to explain differential assimilation of some compounds, especially Dechlorane Plus in Doñana, although a local emission source polluting this area cannot be ruled out. Insight from the migratory connectivity framework can help to disentangle large-scale patterns of contaminant uptake and refocus attention on key regions and potential causes of chemical hazards in declining migratory species and human populations.

Culture- and molecular-based detection of swine-adapted Salmonella shed by avian scavengers

Salmonella can play an important role as a disease agent in wildlife, which can then act as carriers and reservoirs of sanitary importance at the livestock-human interface. Transmission from livestock to avian scavengers can occur when these species consume contaminated carcasses and meat remains in supplementary feeding stations and rubbish dumps. We compared the performance of PCR-based detection with conventional culture-based methods to detect Salmonella in the faeces of red kites (Milvus milvus) and griffon vultures (Gyps fulvus) in central Spain. The occurrence of culturable Salmonella was intermediate in red kites (1.9%, n=52) and high in griffon vultures (26.3%, n=99). These proportions were clearly higher with PCR-based detection (13.5% and 40.4%, respectively). Confirmation cultures failed to grow Salmonella in all faecal samples positive by the molecular assay but negative by the initial conventional culture in both scavenger species, indicating the occurrence of false (non-culturable) positives by PCR-based detection. This suggests that the molecular assay is highly sensitive to detecting viable Salmonella in cultures, but also partial genomes and dead or unviable bacteria from past infections or contamination. Thus, the actual occurrence of Salmonella in a particular sampling time period can be underestimated when using only culture detection. The serovars found in the scavenger faeces were among the most frequently isolated in pigs from Spain and other EU countries, especially those generally recognized as swine-adapted monophasic variants of S. Typhimurium. Because the studied species obtain much of their food from pig carcasses, this livestock may be the primary source of Salmonella via direct ingestion of infected carcasses and indirectly via contamination due to the unsanitary conditions found in supplementary feeding stations established for scavenger conservation. Combining culture- and molecular-based detection is encouraged to understand the epidemiology and impact of Salmonella in wildlife populations.

Influence of habitat suitability and sex-related detectability on density and population size estimates of habitat-specialist warblers

Knowledge about the population size and trends of common bird species is crucial for setting conservation priorities and management actions. Multi-species large-scale monitoring schemes have often provided such estimates relying on extrapolation of relative abundances in particular habitats to large-scale areas. Here we show an alternative to inference-rich predictive models, proposing methods to deal with caveats of population size estimations in habitat-specialist species, reed warblers (Acrocephalus scirpaceus and Acrocephalus arundinaceus). Reed warblers were only found in pure reedbeds within riparian woodlands or in riparian vegetation scattered within or around reedbed patches, as expected according to their habitat specialization. The proportion of individuals located in reedbed associated with lotic and lentic waters differed between species, and no reed warbler was recorded in reedbed located along dry streams. This indicates that microhabitat features or their effects on reedbed structure and other factors made a proportion of the apparently available habitat unsuitable for both warbler species. Most warblers detected were males performing territorial singing (females seldom sing and do not perform elaborate territorial song, and are undistinguishable from males by plumage). The regional population sizes of the warbler species (~4000 individuals of A. scirpaceus and ~ 1000 individuals of A. arundinaceus) were much smaller than those estimated for the same area by transforming relative abundance obtained at a national scale to population size through extrapolation by habitat at a regional scale. These results highlight the importance of considering the habitat actually used and its suitability, the manner of sex-related detection, population sex-ratio and their interactions in population estimates. Ideally, the value of predictive methods to estimate population size of common species should be tested before conducting large-scale monitoring, rather than a posteriori. Although logistically challenging, this can be achieved by designing monitoring programs including an intensive sampling of abundance in ad hoc reference areas of variable size.

Do Spanish Medical Students Understand the Concept of Brain Death?

Objective:

To analyze the level of understanding of the brain death concept among medical students in universities in Spain.

Methods:

This cross-sectional sociological, interdisciplinary, and multicenter study was performed on 9598 medical students in Spain. The sample was stratified by geographical area and academic year. A previously validated self-reported measure of brain death knowledge (questionnaire Proyecto Colaborativo Internacional Donante sobre la Donación y Transplante de Organos) was completed anonymously by students.

Results:

Respondents completed 9275 surveys for a completion rate of 95.7%. Of those, 67% (n = 6190) of the respondents understood the brain death concept. Of the rest, 28% (n = 2652) did not know what it meant, and the remaining 5% (n = 433) believed that it did not mean that the patient was dead. The variables related to a correct understanding of the concept were: (1) being older ( P < .001), (2) studying at a public university ( P < .001), (3) year of medical school ( P < .001), (4) studying at one of the universities in the south of Spain ( P = .003), (5) having discussed donation and transplantation with the family ( P < .001), (6) having spoken to friends about the matter ( P < .001), (7) a partner’s favorable attitude toward donation and transplantation ( P < .001), and (8) religious beliefs ( P < .001).

Conclusions:

Sixty-seven percent of medical students know the concept of brain death, and knowledge improved as they advanced in their degree.

Supplementary feeding as a source of multiresistant Salmonella in endangered Egyptian vultures

Wild birds have repeatedly been highlighted as vectors in the dissemination of livestock and human pathogens. Here, the occurrence, serotypes and antimicrobial resistance of Salmonella were assessed in adult Egyptian vultures (Neophron percnopterus), to test the hypothesis that infection is associated with the consumption of swine carcasses provided at supplementary feeding stations (SFSs). Faeces of year-round resident griffon vultures (Gyps fulvus) were also tested to assess whether infection was acquired in the breeding grounds of both species or in the African wintering quarters of Egyptian vultures. Depending on the shedding rate criteria considered, the occurrence of infection in Egyptian vultures varied between the three consecutive sampling days in a range with a minimum of 23%-41% and a maximum of 64%-92% of individuals (n = 11-14 individuals, 27-39 faeces). The occurrence in the single sampling of griffon vultures was 61% of faeces (n = 18). Vultures mostly fed on pig carcasses, which together with their predominant infection with multiresistant serotypes (mostly the monophasic 4,12:i:- variant resistant to aminopenicillins, aminoglycosides and tetracyclines) typically found in pigs from Spain, strongly supports a carcass-to-vulture transmission and cross-infection routes at SFSs. Efforts are encouraged to avoid discarding carcasses of pigs with Salmonella at SFSs established for the conservation of threatened scavengers. This could contribute to reducing the long-distance transmission of resistant pathogens with an impact on livestock and human health while avoiding infection risk and its effects on wildlife.

Oral mycoses in avian scavengers exposed to antibiotics from livestock farming

The exposure to antimicrobial pharmaceuticals as environmental contaminants can exert direct and indirect detrimental effects on health of wildlife. Fungal infections pose a major threat to domestic, captive-housed wild and free-ranging wild animals worldwide. However, little is known about their role in disease in birds in the wild. Here, we evaluated the incidence of thrush-like lesions in the oral cavity of wild nestling cinereous vultures (Aegypius monachus), griffon vultures (Gyps fulvus), Egyptian vultures (Neophron percnopterus) and golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) exposed to veterinary antibiotics via the consumption of medicated livestock carcasses. Lesions, which varied in number, size and location, were more frequent in the cinereous (77.8%, n=9) and griffon vultures (66.7%, n=48) than in the Egyptian vultures (28.6%, n=21) and golden eagles (28.6%, n=7). In all individuals (100%, n=24) of a subsample of the affected nestlings, yeast species were isolated from thrush-like oral lesions and identified using a well-established system based on their carbohydrate assimilation profiles and other complementary tests. Fourteen yeast species from seven genera (Candida, Meyerozyma, Pichia, Yarrowia, Cryptococcus, Rhodotorula and Trichosporon) were isolated from the lesions of the four host species. We found differential infections and effects depending on host age-related exposure or susceptibility to different yeast species across the development of nestling griffon vultures. This unprecedented outbreak of oral mycoses is alarming because of the delicate conservation status of several of the affected species. The role of livestock antibiotics in the transition of yeast species from commensal to opportunistic pathogens should be evaluated in an attempt to avoid the detrimental effects of contamination and disease on host health, as well as on the transmission of fungal emerging pathogens among wildlife populations and species, and their dissemination across livestock and human populations.

Activation of iNKT Cells Prevents Salmonella-Enterocolitis and Salmonella-Induced Reactive Arthritis by Downregulating IL-17-Producing γδT Cells

Reactive arthritis (ReA) is an inflammatory condition of the joints that arises following an infection. Salmonella enterocolitis is one of the most common infections leading to ReA. Although the pathogenesis remains unclear, it is known that IL-17 plays a pivotal role in the development of ReA. IL-17-producers cells are mainly Th17, iNKT, and γδT lymphocytes. It is known that iNKT cells regulate the development of Th17 lineage. Whether iNKT cells also regulate γδT lymphocytes differentiation is unknown. We found that iNKT cells play a protective role in ReA. BALB/c Jα18^−/− mice suffered a severe Salmonella enterocolitis, a 3.5-fold increase in IL-17 expression and aggravated inflammation of the synovial membrane. On the other hand, activation of iNKT cells with α-GalCer abrogated IL-17 response to Salmonella enterocolitis and prevented intestinal and joint tissue damage. Moreover, the anti-inflammatory effect of α-GalCer was related to a drop in the proportion of IL-17-producing γδT lymphocytes (IL17-γδTcells) rather than to a decrease in Th17 cells. In summary, we here show that iNKT cells play a protective role against Salmonella-enterocolitis and Salmonella-induced ReA by downregulating IL17-γδTcells.

Seed dispersal by macaws shapes the landscape of an Amazonian ecosystem

Seed dispersal is one of the most studied plant-animal mutualisms. It has been proposed that the dispersal of many large-seeded plants from Neotropical forests was primarily conducted by extinct megafauna, and currently by livestock. Parrots can transport large fruits using their beaks, but have been overlooked as seed dispersers. We demonstrate that three macaws (Ara ararauna, A. glaucogularis and A. severus) are the main dispersers of the large-seeded motacú palm Attalea princeps, which is the biomass-dominant tree in the Bolivian Amazonian savannas. Macaws dispersed fruits at high rates (75-100% of fruits) to distant (up to 1200 m) perching trees, where they consumed the pulp and discarded entire seeds, contributing to forest regeneration and connectivity between distant forests islands. The spatial distribution of immature palms was positively associated to the proximity to macaws' perching trees and negatively to the proximity to cattle paths. The disperser role of livestock, presumably a substitute for extinct megafauna, had little effect due to soil compaction, trampling and herbivory. Our results underscore the importance of macaws as legitimate, primary dispersers of large-seeded plants at long distances and, specifically, their key role in shaping the landscape structure and functioning of this Amazonian biome.

Occurrence of veterinary pharmaceuticals in golden eagle nestlings: Unnoticed scavenging on livestock carcasses and other potential exposure routes

Wildlife exposure to pharmaceuticals can occur through contaminated water, and through the excreta and carcasses of medicated livestock, with potential for bioaccumulation and transfer through food webs. We evaluated whether nestling exposure to pharmaceuticals can occur from food delivered to nests in the golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), a top predator and facultative scavenger. Despite the fact that diet analysis suggests an apparently low dependence on livestock carcasses reduced to two piglets remains (1.5% of food remains, n=134), a high proportion of nestlings (71%, n=7) showed fluoroquinolone residues in plasma, mostly enrofloxacin, which is exclusively used in veterinary treatments. The occurrence and concentration (54.5±6.6μg·L^-1) of fluoroquinolones in plasma was similar to those found in the nestlings of three vulture species largely dependent on livestock carcasses obtained at supplementary feeding stations, which are managed for the conservation of their populations. Although the number of analysed eaglets is comparatively small, the fact that enrofloxacin was found in all nests sampled in three breeding seasons suggest an exposure to the drugs similar to that of vultures. An underestimation of the role of carrion, especially from small piglets whose consumption may have gone unnoticed, and the predation of semi-domestic prey and generalist prey exploiting carcasses of medicated livestock, can contribute to explaining the unexpectedly high occurrence of these drugs in eaglets.

Supplementary feeding and endoparasites in threatened avian scavengers: Coprologic evidence from red kites in their wintering stronghold

Many obligate and facultative avian scavengers are increasingly dependent on food provided in supplementary feeding stations (SFS), which are managed for the conservation of these species. Deliberate feeding can influence disease-related host demography and population dynamics through physiological changes and density-dependent parasite acquisition and transmission, but information on this threat to avian scavengers is scarce. Due to their effects on host aggregation and density, we hypothesised that the predictability and concentration of food in SFS can exacerbate parasite infection. This hypothesis was tested by comparing the prevalence, richness, abundance and mixed infection of endoparasites (coccidia and helminths) in red kites Milvus milvus foraging on livestock carcasses (mostly of pigs and poultry) in overcrowded and confined conditions at SFS, relative to those foraging alone or in small groups on wild prey unevenly randomly distributed within large areas during winter, mostly wild rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus). No clear differences were found between areas with and without SFS in the prevalence and abundance of oocyst of Eimeria. This coccidian genus appears to include parasites of the prey rather than the raptors, thus representing parasite transport or pseudo-parasitism rather than actual parasitism in the kites. A higher prevalence and richness of helminths, as well as mixed infections with several phyla, was found in kites exploiting SFS than in those feeding on wild prey in the area without SFS. The unsanitary conditions derived from the stack of livestock carcasses and the contamination of carrion with the faeces of multiple scavenger hosts can increase the accumulation and persistence of helminths eggs and intermediate hosts. The regular use and frequent confinement of large numbers of red kites at SFS can promote the spread of parasites to a large proportion of the European breeding population distributed across Spain during the winter. We encourage that carcasses of free roaming livestock can be left in the countryside, as well as the conservation management of wildlife exploited as food by red kites (especially wild rabbits), to attempt avoiding overcrowded and confined conditions at SFS. Further research is required to assess the impact of deliberate feeding on the spread of parasites and other disease agents in the threatened species SFS are intended to favour.

Extreme genetic structure in a social bird species despite high dispersal capacity

Social barriers have been shown to reduce gene flow and contribute to genetic structure among populations in species with high cognitive capacity and complex societies, such as cetaceans, apes and humans. In birds, high dispersal capacity is thought to prevent population divergence unless major geographical or habitat barriers induce isolation patterns by dispersal, colonization or adaptation limitation. We report that Iberian populations of the red-billed chough, a social, gregarious corvid with high dispersal capacity, show a striking degree of genetic structure composed of at least 15 distinct genetic units. Monitoring of marked individuals over 30 years revealed that long-distance movements over hundreds of kilometres are common, yet recruitment into breeding populations is infrequent and highly philopatric. Genetic differentiation is weakly related to geographical distance, and habitat types used are overall qualitatively similar among regions and regularly shared by individuals of different populations, so that genetic structure is unlikely to be due solely to isolation by distance or isolation by adaptation. Moreover, most population nuclei showed relatively high levels of genetic diversity, suggesting a limited role for genetic drift in significantly differentiating populations. We propose that social mechanisms may underlie this unprecedented level of genetic structure in birds through a pattern of isolation by social barriers not yet described, which may have driven this remarkable population divergence in the absence of geographical and environmental barriers.

Sex- and age-dependent patterns of survival and breeding success in a long-lived endangered avian scavenger

In long-lived species, the age-, stage- and/or sex-dependent patterns of survival and reproduction determine the evolution of life history strategies, the shape of the reproductive value, and ultimately population dynamics. We evaluate the combined effects of age and sex in recruitment, breeder survival and breeding success of the globally endangered Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus), using 31-years of exhaustive data on marked individuals in Spain. Mean age of first reproduction was 7-yrs for both sexes, but females showed an earlier median and a larger variance than males. We found an age-related improvement in breeding success at the population level responding to the selective appearance and disappearance of phenotypes of different quality but unrelated to within-individual aging effects. Old males (≥8 yrs) showed a higher survival than both young males (≤7 yrs) and females, these later in turn not showing aging effects. Evolutionary trade-offs between age of recruitment and fitness (probably related to costs of territory acquisition and defense) as well as human-related mortality may explain these findings. Sex- and age-related differences in foraging strategies and susceptibility to toxics could be behind the relatively low survival of females and young males, adding a new concern for the conservation of this endangered species.

Food safety in scavenger conservation: Diet-associated exposure to livestock pharmaceuticals and opportunist mycoses in threatened Cinereous and Egyptian vultures

Pharmaceuticals from veterinary treatments may enter terrestrial food webs when medicated livestock are available to wildlife in supplementary feeding stations aimed at the conservation of endangered scavengers. Here, we hypothesized that the exposure risk to livestock fluoroquinolones, as indicators of pharmaceutical burden in food, is related to the variable reliance of scavengers on domestic versus wild animal carcasses. Since the misuse of broad-spectrum antibiotics is a major predisposing factor for opportunistic mycoses, we evaluated disease signs potentially associated with diet-dependent drug exposure in nestlings of two threatened vultures. A greater occurrence (100%, n=14) and concentration of fluoroquinolones (mean±SD=73.0±27.5µgL^-1, range=33.2-132.7), mostly enrofloxacin, were found in Cinereous vultures, Aegypius monachus, due to their greater dependence on livestock carcasses than Egyptian vultures, Neophron percnopterus (fluoroquinolones occurrence: 44%, n=16, concentration: 37.9±16.6µgL^-1, range=11.5-55.9), which rely much more on carcasses of wild animals (42% of remains vs. 23% in the cinereous vulture). The chaotic, chronic and pulsed ingestion of these drugs throughout nestling development is proposed as one of the most plausible explanations for the high occurrence and intensity of oral Candida-like lesions in nestling vultures. The high occurrence of fluoroquinolone residues and disease hindered the probing of a cause-effect relationship between both factors in individual vultures. This relationship could be evaluated through a population-based approach by sampling vultures not exposed to these drugs. The high dependence of vultures on domestic animals today compared to past decades and the growing intensification of livestock farming, imply an expected increase in the impact of pharmaceuticals on scavenger populations. This requires further evaluation due to potential consequences in biodiversity conservation and environmental health. We encourage the prioritization of efforts to promote the use of less medicated free-ranging livestock carcasses left in the countryside, rather than stabled stocks made available in vulture restaurants. Additionally, attention should be paid to the population recovery of wild species that dominated scavenger diets in the past.

[Distribution of findings of scorpions in Buenos Aires city in the period 2001-2012 and their sanitary implications]

Scorpion stings and their associated mortality increased in the last years in Argentina, with a cumulative record of 73,617 cases and 30 deaths during the period 2001-2012, occurring almost all the deaths in pediatric patients. However, deaths due to severe envenoming by scorpion stings have not been recorded in Buenos Aires city and suburban regions, although the presence of scorpions in this city has been increasingly reported. We studied the temporal and geographical distribution of Tityus trivittatus findings in Buenos Aires city from the database of the Research and Development Area from the National Institute for Production of Biologics of the National Ministry of Health during the period 10/01/2001 to 31/12/2012 in order to correlate these findings with the distribution of health centers in the city. In this period 385 consults with identification of scorpions were recorded. Annual records showed a growing trend. Georeferenced data showed that findings appeared to increase in the surroundings of metro and train stations, mainly at the east of the city with expansion to the west. Although Toxicology services are geographically related to the zones with higher density of finding of scorpions, the accessibility to the centers with antivenom may hinder its application in the recommended time; some measures to avoid possible delays in the application of the treatment are suggested.

Internal seed dispersal by parrots: an overview of a neglected mutualism

Despite the fact that parrots (Psitacifformes) are generalist apex frugivores, they have largely been considered plant antagonists and thus neglected as seed dispersers of their food plants. Internal dispersal was investigated by searching for seeds in faeces opportunistically collected at communal roosts, foraging sites and nests of eleven parrot species in different habitats and biomes in the Neotropics. Multiple intact seeds of seven plant species of five families were found in a variable proportion of faeces from four parrot species. The mean number of seeds of each plant species per dropping ranged between one and about sixty, with a maximum of almost five hundred seeds from the cacti Pilosocereus pachycladus in a single dropping of Lear's Macaw (Anodorhynchus leari). All seeds retrieved were small (<3 mm) and corresponded to herbs and relatively large, multiple-seeded fleshy berries and infrutescences from shrubs, trees and columnar cacti, often also dispersed by stomatochory. An overview of the potential constraints driving seed dispersal suggest that, despite the obvious size difference between seeds dispersed by endozoochory and stomatochory, there is no clear difference in fruit size depending on the dispersal mode. Regardless of the enhanced or limited germination capability after gut transit, a relatively large proportion of cacti seeds frequently found in the faeces of two parrot species were viable according to the tetrazolium test and germination experiments. The conservative results of our exploratory sampling and a literature review clearly indicate that the importance of parrots as endozoochorous dispersers has been largely under-appreciated due to the lack of research systematically searching for seeds in their faeces. We encourage the evaluation of seed dispersal and other mutualistic interactions mediated by parrots before their generalized population declines contribute to the collapse of key ecosystem processes.

Wildlife contamination with fluoroquinolones from livestock: Widespread occurrence of enrofloxacin and marbofloxacin in vultures

There is much recent interest in the presence and impact of veterinary pharmaceuticals in wildlife. Livestock carcasses are often disposed of in supplementary feeding stations for avian scavengers, as a management and conservation tool for these species worldwide. In feeding stations, vultures and other scavengers can consume carcasses almost immediately after disposal, which implies the potential ingestion of veterinary pharmaceuticals as a non-target consequence of supplementary feeding. Using UPLC-MS/MS and HPLC-TOF, we evaluated the presence and concentration of fluoroquinolone residues in plasma of nestling vultures feeding on domestic livestock carrion. Three different fluoroquinolones (marbofloxacin, enrofloxacin and its metabolite ciprofloxacin) and a non-targeted β-lactam (nafcillin) were detected in vulture plasma. The high proportion of individuals (92%) with fluoroquinolone residues at variable concentrations (up to ∼20 μg L(-1) of enrofloxacin and ∼150 μg L(-1) of marbofloxacin) sampled in several geographically distant colonies and on different dates suggests that these and other drugs were potentially ingested throughout nestling development. Contamination with veterinary fluoroquinolones and other pharmaceuticals should be considered as an unintended but alarming consequence of food management in threatened wildlife.

Age-Related Relationships between Innate Immunity and Plasma Carotenoids in an Obligate Avian Scavenger

Variation in immunity is influenced by allocation trade-offs that are expected to change between age-classes as a result of the different environmental and physiological conditions that individuals encounter over their lifetime. One such trade-off occurs with carotenoids, which must be acquired with food and are involved in a variety of physiological functions. Nonetheless, relationships between immunity and carotenoids in species where these micronutrients are scarce due to diet are poorly studied. Among birds, vultures show the lowest concentrations of plasma carotenoids due to a diet based on carrion. Here, we investigated variations in the relationships between innate immunity (hemagglutination by natural antibodies and hemolysis by complement proteins), pathogen infection and plasma carotenoids in nestling and adult griffon vultures (Gyps fulvus) in the wild. Nestlings showed lower hemolysis, higher total carotenoid concentration and higher pathogen infection than adults. Hemolysis was negatively related to carotenoid concentration only in nestlings. A differential carotenoid allocation to immunity due to the incomplete development of the immune system of nestlings compared with adults is suggested linked to, or regardless of, potential differences in parasite infection, which requires experimental testing. We also found that individuals with more severe pathogen infections showed lower hemagglutination than those with a lower intensity infection irrespective of their age and carotenoid level. These results are consistent with the idea that intraspecific relationships between innate immunity and carotenoids may change across ontogeny, even in species lacking carotenoid-based coloration. Thus, even low concentrations of plasma carotenoids due to a scavenger diet can be essential to the development and activation of the immune system in growing birds.

Parrots as key multilinkers in ecosystem structure and functioning

Mutually enhancing organisms can become reciprocal determinants of their distribution, abundance, and demography and thus influence ecosystem structure and dynamics. In addition to the prevailing view of parrots (Psittaciformes) as plant antagonists, we assessed whether they can act as plant mutualists in the dry tropical forest of the Bolivian inter-Andean valleys, an ecosystem particularly poor in vertebrate frugivores other than parrots (nine species). We hypothesised that if interactions between parrots and their food plants evolved as primarily or facultatively mutualistic, selection should have acted to maximize the strength of their interactions by increasing the amount and variety of resources and services involved in particular pairwise and community-wide interaction contexts. Food plants showed different growth habits across a wide phylogenetic spectrum, implying that parrots behave as super-generalists exploiting resources differing in phenology, type, biomass, and rewards from a high diversity of plants (113 species from 38 families). Through their feeding activities, parrots provided multiple services acting as genetic linkers, seed facilitators for secondary dispersers, and plant protectors, and therefore can be considered key mutualists with a pervasive impact on plant assemblages. The number of complementary and redundant mutualistic functions provided by parrots to each plant species was positively related to the number of different kinds of food extracted from them. These mutually enhancing interactions were reflected in species-level properties (e.g., biomass or dominance) of both partners, as a likely consequence of the temporal convergence of eco-(co)evolutionary dynamics shaping the ongoing structure and organization of the ecosystem. A full assessment of the, thus far largely overlooked, parrot-plant mutualisms and other ecological linkages could change the current perception of the role of parrots in the structure, organization, and functioning of ecosystems.

Genetic Signatures of Demographic Changes in an Avian Top Predator during the Last Century: Bottlenecks and Expansions of the Eurasian Eagle Owl in the Iberian Peninsula

The study of the demographic history of species can help to understand the negative impact of recent population declines in organisms of conservation concern. Here, we use neutral molecular markers to explore the genetic consequences of the recent population decline and posterior recovery of the Eurasian eagle owl (Bubo bubo) in the Iberian Peninsula. During the last century, the species was the object of extermination programs, suffering direct persecution by hunters until the 70's. Moreover, during the last decades the eagle owl was severely impacted by increased mortality due to electrocution and the decline of its main prey species, the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus). In recent times, the decrease of direct persecution and the implementation of some conservation schemes have allowed the species' demographic recovery. Yet, it remains unknown to which extent the past population decline and the later expansion have influenced the current species' pattern of genetic diversity. We used eight microsatellite markers to genotype 235 eagle owls from ten Spanish subpopulations and analyse the presence of genetic signatures attributable to the recent population fluctuations experienced by the species. We found moderate levels of differentiation among the studied subpopulations and Bayesian analyses revealed the existence of three genetic clusters that grouped subpopulations from central, south-western and south-eastern Spain. The observed genetic structure could have resulted from recent human-induced population fragmentation, a patchy distribution of prey populations and/or the philopatric behaviour and habitat selection of the species. We detected an old population bottleneck, which occurred approximately 10,000 years ago, and significant signatures of recent demographic expansions. However, we did not find genetic signatures for a recent bottleneck, which may indicate that population declines were not severe enough to leave detectable signals on the species genetic makeup or that such signals have been eroded by the rapid demographic recovery experienced by the species in recent years.

Next-generation sequencing and comparative analysis of Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax and Pyrrhocorax graculus (Passeriformes: Corvidae) mitochondrial genomes

The complete mitochondrial genomes of Red-billed Chough (Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax) and Yellow-billed Chough (Pyrrhocorax graculus) were sequenced using the Ion Torrent PGM platform. These mitogenomes contain 16,889 bp (Red-billed Chough) and 16,905 bp (Yellow-billed Chough), including 13 protein-coding genes (PCGs), two ribosomal RNA (rRNA) genes, 22 transfer RNA (tRNA) genes, and a control region (D-loop). The gene content, orientation, and structure are similar to a wide range of other vertebrate species and the nucleotide composition is very similar to other Passeriformes. All PCGs start with ATG, except for COX1 that starts with GTG, and four stop codons and one incomplete stop codon are used (TAA, TAG, AGG, AGA, and T-). The size of PCGs is the same in both mitogenomes, except for ND6 that has one codon less in the Yellow-billed Chough. All the tRNAs can fold into a typical cloverleaf secondary structure. These mitogenomic data can be of great value in complementing forthcoming approaches on molecular ecology, comparative and functional genomics.