Developmental phonological disorders. II. Short-term speech-sound normalization

A companion paper (Shriberg & Kwiatkowski, 1994) provides a descriptive profile of three samples of children (n = 178) with developmental phonological disorders. The present paper describes a conceptual framework for short-term and long-term speech-sound normalization research and reports 1-year normalization outcomes for 54 of the children described in the companion paper. Although certain individual speech variables were significantly associated with normalization, there were no speech, prosody-voice, or risk-factor variables that discriminated children who achieved short-term speech-sound normalization in 1 year. Findings are discussed in relation to a two-factor framework to study and predict speech-sound normalization in developmental phonological disorders (Kwiatkowski & Shriberg, 1993; Shriberg, Kwiatkowski, & Gruber, 1992).

Developmental phonological disorders. I: A clinical profile

Detailed information on the speech, language, prosody, and voice characteristics of children with developmental phonological disorders is central to diverse research questions. The present study provides a clinical profile of 178 children with developmental phonological disorders. It includes information from prior reports (Shriberg & Kwiatkowski, 1982a; Shriberg, Kwiatkowski, Best, Hengst, & Terselic-Weber, 1986) and from several new measures on a sample of 64 children. The speech, prosody-voice, and causal-correlates profiles for the most recent sample are consistent with prior findings, providing a descriptive profile for forthcoming subgroup research and companion studies addressing short-term (Shriberg, Kwiatkowski, & Gruber, 1994) and long-term (Shriberg, Gruber, & Kwiatkowski, 1994) speech-sound normalization.

Developmental phonological disorders. III: Long-term speech-sound normalization

Prior articles in this series provide a descriptive profile of 178 children with developmental phonological disorders (Shriberg & Kwiatkowski, 1994) and predictive correlates of short-term speech-sound normalization in 54 children (Shriberg, Kwiatkowski, & Gruber, 1994). The present article reports findings from a study of 10 children with developmental phonological disorders whose progress was followed at least once yearly for 7 years. Analyses characterize the sequence, rates, and error patterns of long-term speech-sound normalization in relation to developmental perspectives on the nature of children's phonological disorders. Findings are interpreted to support the hypothesis of a critical period for speech-sound development, with long-term normalization of significant speech delay reaching a chronological age boundary at approximately 8.5 years.

Tabletop versus microcomputer-assisted speech management: response evocation phase

This is the third in a series of studies on the use of microcomputers with speech-delayed children. Two repeated-measures designs (n = 15) and five case studies were completed to compare tabletop management at early and late stages of the response development phase with two comparable, computer-assisted drill-and-practice activities. Discrimination of correct articulatory responses was mediated by the clinician in all modes, rather than by speech recognition hardware, but all contingent reinforcement in the computer modes was presented by animation graphics. The two computer modes were identical except for the addition of fantasy involvement in one of the modes. Findings indicated that the three modes of intervention were equally effective, efficient, and engaging. Subject-level analyses suggested that microcomputer software has excellent potential to engage children in drill-and-practice for late-phase response evocation, when the target sound is stimulable, but limited usefulness with young children at early-phase response evocation, when specific articulatory behaviors need to be cued. Discussion considers learning, child, and hardware/software factors in microcomputer-assisted speech management.

Tabletop versus microcomputer-assisted speech management: stabilization phase

Few controlled data are available on the efficacy of microcomputers for speech management with children. The focus of this second report in a study series using microcomputers with speech-delayed children (Shriberg, Kwiatkowski, & Snyder, 1986) is on the response stabilization stage of speech management. Two repeated-measures designs were conducted with two samples of preschool children (n = 18) to compare tabletop management with comparable computer-assisted activities. Findings indicate that response stabilization tasks in the two intervention modes were equally effective, efficient, and engaging. Additional analyses suggest that the two modes engage the children in different ways, however, and that children may have individual needs for mode-specific features.

A follow-up study of children with phonologic disorders of unknown origin

Recent emphasis on early intervention programming for children with speech delays of unknown origin has yielded considerable literature on alternative forms of assessment and management. Less is known about the long-term special educational needs of such children. This study reviews the exceptional educational needs histories of 36 children who had received preschool speech services at a phonology clinic. Findings indicate that a high percentage of children continued to have speech and language and other special educational needs as they neared middle school and beyond. Many children eventually required special class placements. Discussion focuses on issues in classification, prediction, and management. On the bases of both original and follow-up data in this and other studies, the term phonological disorder appears to be appropriate for approximately 75%-80% of children referred early for speech disorders of unknown origin.

Regulation of plant morphology by growth retardants: effects on phytohormone levels in soybean seedlings determined by immunoassay

The effects of the growth retardants tetcyclacis, a norbornenodiazetine, and LAB 150 978, a dioxanylalkenyl triazole, on seedling growth and endogenous levels of phytohormone-like substances in Glycine max L. cv Maple Arrow were studied. The levels of phytohormone-like substances in the root and in the various shoot tissues were analyzed by immunoassay. After seed treatment with both compounds, shoot growth was reduced more intensively than root growth. Both compounds decreased, on a fresh weight basis, the amount of various immunoreactive gibberellins when compared with the levels in control plants, especially in the shoot tip. Likewise, the growth retardants lowered the levels of abscisic acid-like material, particularly in the primary leaf, the epicotyl and the root. In contrast, the levels of trans-zeatin-riboside and dihydrozeatin-riboside-type cytokinins were considerably elevated by the growth retardants, mainly in the primary leaf, epicotyl, and hypocotyl. On the other hand the level of isopentenyladenosine-like material was less influenced. In general, the immunoreactive 3-indoleacetic acid content in the different plant parts was changed only slightly. It is assumed that besides their effect on gibberellin content both compounds interfere directly or indirectly with the regulation of the endogenous levels of abscisic acid and cytokinins. This might be seen as an additional mode of action of growth retardants explaining some side effects on developmental processes of treated plants, e.g. delayed senescence and enhanced chlorophyll concentration in the leaves.

Articulation testing by microcomputer

The picture naming articulation test, one of the most widely used speech assessment procedures, provides an excellent paradigm to study the potential of microcomputers with young, speech involved children. The stimulus-response format of the articulation test is structurally similar to assessment and management procedures crossing the spectrum of speech disorders. Findings from three studies comparing booklet-presented pictures to microcomputer-presented graphics indicate that microcomputers have certain control advantages in motivating children's repeated trials. However, spontaneous articulation testing by microcomputer may take more time than booklet testing if the graphics are less readily identifiable and due to associated novelty effects. Discussion of findings includes suggestions for enhancing the client-clinician-computer interface as this discipline experiences the entry of microcomputers into the speech-language clinic.

Characteristics of children with phonologic disorders of unknown origin

Descriptive data are presented from three studies of children referred for assessment of a developmental speech disorder of unknown origin. Group findings indicate that these children have involvements in mechanism, cognitive, and psychosocial areas that warrant attention in theoretical explication of and early intervention for their communication deficits. The reliability, learnability, and efficiency of a diagnostic classification system that attempts to provide characteristic speech profiles for diagnostic subtypes is also considered.

Continuous speech sampling for phonologic analyses of speech-delayed children

Five conditions for sampling the continuous speech of speech-delayed children were defined and compared. Conditions differed on variables associated with examiner behavior and stimulus materials. All sampling conditions were administered in randomized order by two examiners who each tested 6 children. The obtained speech samples were compared for productivity, intelligibility, representativeness, and reactivity. The general findings of few significant differences associated with sampling conditions support the validity of continuous speech sampling for phonologic analyses of speech-delayed children. Protocols for the five conditions are provided, and guidelines for efficient speech sampling are suggested.

A procedure for phonetic transcription by consensus

A consensus transcription procedure is presented, and representative data are reported. The procedure includes explicit response definitions for mapping narrow phonetic transcription onto dichotomous, nonerror/error scores and 17 rules for obtaining consensus between two transcribers. The data include descriptive statistics for consensus rule use based on over 18,000 sounds transcribed during a normative study of speech sound acquisition in children aged 3-6 years. Validity and reliability issues in phonetic transcription are discussed.

Phonological disorders II: a conceptual framework for management

A conceptual framework for management of phonological disorders is proposed. The framework includes a 10-element system for describing the structure of management programs and invokes a diagnostic classification system for determining appropriate management content. Data from three serial studies of management structure describe the effectiveness, efficiency, and clinician acceptance of four modes of management: Drill, Drill Play, Structured Play and Play. Review of past, present, and future content of management programs emphasizes the central role of individual differences among persons with phonological disorders.

Phonological disorders I: a diagnostic classification system

Data are presented to support the validity and utility of a diagnostic classification system for persons with phonological disorders. Rationale for the classification system is developed from current reviews of issues and concepts in phonology and classification systems. The system proceeds from a worksheet for reduction of phonological and other assessment data, through five hierarchical levels of classification entries. The system will accommodate lower-level elaboration of etiological subgrouping, pending appropriate research. A retrospective classification study of 43 children with delayed speech is described. Procedural details relating classification procedures to two companion papers (Shriberg & Kwiatkowski, 1982a, 1982b) are provided.

Phonological disorders III: a procedure for assessing severity of involvement

Data are presented to support the reliability, validity, and utility of a severity metric for phonological disorders. The metric, percentage of consonants correct (PCC), is readily derived from a continuous speech sample. PCC values are shown to reflect an ordinal severity scale that embraces the constructs of disability, intelligibility, and handicap. PCC values index four levels of "severity of involvement": Mild, mild-moderate, moderate-severe, and severe. The metric provides a means by which instructors, researchers, and speech-language pathologists working in different settings can specify subject descriptions, gauge the effects of intervention programs, and undertake cross-institutional projects. The metric is used as one component of a diagnostic classification system for phonological disorders (Shriberg & Kwiatkowski, 1982a) and within a framework for management of persons with phonological disorders (Shriberg & Kwiatkowski, 1982b), the first and second papers in this series.

Lipogenetic and glycolytic enzyme activities in carcinoma and nonmalignant diseases of the human breast

Activities of some enzymes associated with carbohydrate and lipid metabolism were determined in 48 human breast carcinomas and compared with those found in 35 nonmalignant breast tumours and also in 13 normal breast tissues. In fibrocystic disease only the activity of citrate lyase was markedly higher (14-fold) than in normal tissue. The activities of the remaining enzymes did not differ significantly from those in normal tissue. Enzyme activities in breast carcinoma were 4--160 x those determined in normal tissue according to the following sequence : phosphofructokinase less than malate NADP dehydrogenase less than hexokinase less than lactate dehydrogenase less than isocitrate NADP dehydrogenase less than ATP citrate lyase. Activity of citrate lyase, very low in normal breast (0.0017 mumol/min/g of tissue) rose gradually to 0.039, 0.072 and 0.258 mumol/min/g of tissue in localized fibrocystic disease, fibroadenomas and carcinomas respectively. These data support the idea that citrate lyase may play an important role in lipogenesis in hyperplastic human breast tissues.