Family caregiver learning--how family caregivers learn to provide care at the end of life: a qualitative secondary analysis of four datasets

BACKGROUND

Family caregivers are assuming growing responsibilities in providing care to dying family members. Supporting them is fundamental to ensure quality end-of-life care and to buffer potentially negative outcomes, although family caregivers frequently acknowledge a deficiency of information, knowledge, and skills necessary to assume the tasks involved in this care.

AIM

The aim of this inquiry was to explore how family caregivers describe learning to provide care to palliative patients.

DESIGN

Secondary analysis of data from four qualitative studies (n = 156) with family caregivers of dying people.

DATA SOURCES

Data included qualitative interviews with 156 family caregivers of dying people.

RESULTS

Family caregivers learn through the following processes: trial and error, actively seeking needed information and guidance, applying knowledge and skills from previous experience, and reflecting on their current experiences. Caregivers generally preferred and appreciated a supported or guided learning process that involved being shown or told by others, usually learning reactively after a crisis.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings inform areas for future research to identify effective, individualized programs and interventions to support positive learning experiences for family caregivers of dying people.

Burdens of Family Caregiving at the End of Life

A patient’s ability to be cared for and to die at home is heavily dependent upon the efforts of family caregivers. Considerable stresses are associated with such caregiving, including physical, psychosocial and financial burdens. Research has shown that unmet needs and dissatisfaction with care can lead to negative outcomes for caregivers. While many family caregivers also report caregiving as life-enriching, some report that they would prefer alternatives to care at home, primarily because of these associated burdens. Little is known about which interventions are most effective to support family caregivers ministering palliative care at home. Well-designed studies to test promising interventions are needed, followed by studies of the best ways to implement the most effective interventions. Clinically effective practice support tools in palliative home care are warranted to identify family caregiver needs and to ensure that patients and their family caregivers have a choice about where care is provided.

Communicating shared decision-making: cancer patient perspectives

OBJECTIVE

To contribute to the evolving dialogue on optimizing cancer care communication through systematic analyzes of patients' perspectives.

METHODS

Using constant comparative analysis, inductively derived thematic patterns of communication preferences for shared decision-making were drawn from individual interviews with 60 cancer patients.

RESULTS

Thematic patterns in how patients understand barriers and facilitators to communication within shared decision-making illuminate the basis for distinctive patient preferences and needs. Prevailing cancer communication considerations included focusing attention on the tone and setting of the consultation environment, the attitudinal climate within the consult, the specific approach to handling numerical/statistical information, and the critical messaging around hope. The patient accounts surfaced complex dynamics whereby the experiences of living with cancer permeated interpretations and enactment of the shared decision-making that is emerging as a dominant ideal of cancer care.

CONCLUSION

In our efforts to move beyond traditional paternalism, shared decision-making has been widely advocated as best practice in cancer communication. However, patient experiential evidence suggests the necessity of a careful balance between standardized approaches and respect for diversities.

PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS

Shared decision-making as a practice standard must be balanced against individual patient preferences.

Examining the language-place-healthcare intersection in the context of Canadian homecare nursing

Currently, much of the western world is experiencing a shift in the places where care is provided, namely from institutional settings like hospitals to diverse community settings such as the home. However, little is known about how language and the physical and social aspects of place interact to influence how health-care is delivered and experienced in the home environment. Drawing on ethnographic participant observations of homecare nursing visits and semi-structured interviews with Canadian family caregivers, care recipients and nurses, the intersection of language, place and health-care was explored in this secondary analysis. Our findings reveal four themes: homecare nurses view themselves as 'guests'; home environments facilitate the development of nurse-client relationships; nurses adapt healthcare language to each home environment; and storytelling and illness narratives largely prevail during medical interactions in the home. These findings demonstrate the spatiality of language and how the home environment informs decisions regarding language use. Furthermore, these findings exemplify how language and place mutually influence the experiences and delivery of home health-care. We conclude by discussing the importance of considering the language-place-healthcare intersection in order to gain a better understanding of medical exchanges in places and the associated implications for optimizing best nursing practice.

Legitimising and rationalising in talk about satisfaction with formal healthcare among bereaved family members

While there is a fair amount of knowledge regarding substantive features of end of life care that family members desire and appreciate, we lack full understanding of the process whereby family members formulate care evaluations. In this article we draw on an analysis of interview data from 24 bereaved family members to explicate how they interpret their experiences and formulate evaluations of end of life care services. Most participants wove between expressing and legitimising dissatisfaction, and qualifying or diffusing it. This occurred through processes of comparisons against prior care experiences and expectations, personalising (drawing on personal situations and knowledge), collectivising (drawing on conversations with and observations of others) and attempting to understand causes for their negative care experiences and to attribute responsibility. The findings suggest that dissatisfaction might be diffused even where care is experienced negatively, primarily through the acknowledgement of mitigating circumstances. To a lesser extent, some participants attributed responsibility to the 'system' (policy and decision-makers) and individual staff members. The findings are discussed in relation to the theoretical understanding of satisfaction and evaluation processes and how satisfaction data might inform improvements to care quality.

Perceptions regarding death and dying of individuals with chronic kidney disease

This research explores perceptions regarding death and dying among people with chronic kidney disease. The methodology for the study was narrative inquiry informed by social constructivism. In-depth narrative interviews were conducted on two occasions with 14 participants. The participants included 10 men and 4 women (mean age of 66) who were treated in a mid-size Canadian city. Four themes relating to death and dying emerged from the data: awareness of death as a consequence of kidney failure, close calls, contemplation of suicide and/or withdrawal from dialysis, and preparing for death while living life. From the findings, it appeared that participants were very aware of the risk of dying from their illness, experienced serious health crises, and planned for their deaths. They were comfortable in discussing death and dying and acknowledged withdrawal from dialysis as an option.

Family caregivers' ideal expectations of Canada's Compassionate Care Benefit

We present the findings of 57 interviews conducted in 2007-2008 with Canadians who have cared for a dying family member to examine their ideal expectations of the Compassionate Care Benefit (CCB) - a social programme providing job security and income support for workers caring for a dying person. Our aims are to (1) appreciate how intended users and other family caregivers view the programme's very nature; (2) identify programme challenges and improvements that emerge from considering family caregivers' ideal expectations; and (3) contribute to a larger evaluative study designed to make policy-relevant recommendations for CCB improvement. Review of transcripts across three respondent groups reveals four categories of ideal expectations: (1) eligibility, (2) informational, (3) timing and (4) financial. Ideal expectations were typically derived from respondents' experiences of care-giving, their knowledge of the programme and, for some, of applying for and/or receiving the CCB. Findings reveal that there are gaps between respondents' ideal expectations and their experienced realities. Such gaps may lead to disappointment being experienced by those who believe they should be eligible for the programme but are not, or should be entitled to receive some form of support that is not presently available. This analysis plays an important role in identifying potential changes for the CCB that may better support family caregivers, in that the ideal expectations serve as a starting point for articulating desirable programme amendments. This analysis also has wider relevance. For jurisdictions looking to create new social programmes to support caregivers based upon labour policy strategies and legislation, this analysis identifies considerations that should be made at the outset of development. For jurisdictions that already have employment-based caregiver support programmes, this analysis demonstrates that programme challenges may not always be met through legislative changes alone but also through measures such as increasing awareness.

Planning for end-of-life care: findings from the Canadian Study of Health and Aging

Steps involved in formalizing end-of-life care preferences and factors related to these steps are unclear in the literature. Using data from the third wave of the Canadian Study of Health and Aging (CSHA-3), we examined the relations between demographic and health predictors, on the one hand, and three outcomes, on the other (whether participants had thought about, discussed , or formalized their end-of-life preferences), and considered, as well, whether relations existed among the three outcomes. Canadian region of residence, female gender, and more years of education predicted having thought about preferences; region of residence, female gender, and lack of cognitive impairment predicted discussion of preferences; and region of residence and not being married predicted whether formal documents were in place. Ontario residents were most likely to have thought about, discussed, and formalized their preferences, whereas Atlantic residents were least likely to. Finally, having thought about preferences was associated with discussion, and having thought about and having discussed preferences were each associated with formalization of preferences. These findings are in keeping with the position that Advance Directives (AD) execution is a multi-stage process. A better understanding of this process may prove useful for the development of interventions to promote planning for end-of-life care.

Core aspects of "empowering" caregivers as articulated by leaders in home health care: palliative and chronic illness contexts

Home-based family caregivers are often assisted by home care services founded upon principles of health promotion, such as empowerment. Using an interpretive approach and in-depth qualitative interviews, the authors examine descriptions of family empowerment by leaders and managers in the field of home health care in the province of British Columbia, Canada. In a culture of fiscal restraint, dying at home, and self-care, participants described how home care nurses empower family caregivers to meet these objectives. This involves educating and informing caregivers, engaging them in planning and decision-making, and reassuring them that their role is manageable and worthwhile. Though some participants viewed providing supports as empowering (e.g., during times of crisis), others viewed them as disempowering (by promoting dependence). Empowered caregivers were characterized as able to provide home care, confident of their capabilities, and believing that their work is positive and beneficial. The long-term goal of empowerment was characterized as client self-care and/or family care and decreased dependence on formal services.

Patient perceptions of helpful communication in the context of advanced cancer

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

Based on a secondary analysis of data from a large qualitative study on cancer care communication, we address the question: what do patients with advanced cancer identify as helpful in their communication encounters with health care providers?

BACKGROUND

Communication is of critical importance to the care of patients with advanced cancer. A better understanding of what such patients identify as helpful in their communication encounters with nurses and other health care providers seems critical to creating evidence-informed recommendations for best practices.

DESIGN

Secondary analysis of qualitative interview data.

METHODS

Data from 18 participants interviewed individually and 16 focus group participants, with advanced cancer in the palliative phase of care. Interpretive description methodology informed data collection and analysis.

RESULTS

Findings suggest four key elements are critically important to consider in communications with patients in an advanced or palliative phase - respecting the importance of time, demonstrating caring, acknowledging fear and balancing hope and honesty in the provision of information.

CONCLUSIONS

Communication is an important element in the provision of advanced cancer care.

RELEVANCE TO CLINICAL PRACTICE

Findings emphasise the complex meanings inherent in cancer care communication and identify central themes that are fundamental to effective cancer care communication.

Articulating the role of relationships in access to home care nursing at the end of life

In this article, we draw on data collected from two samples of home care nurses to examine how relationships between nurses and family caregivers intersected with access to palliative home care nursing services. Participants referred to relationships as important for their practical benefits and for access to care: good relationships enhanced the nurse's ability to assess clients and families and fostered the family's trust in the nurse's care. Although emphasizing the need to build and maintain relationships (often requiring time), participants simultaneously referred to beliefs about the need to control the personal emotions invoked in relationships so as to ensure appropriate access for clients and families. Future research should further explore how the organizational and resource context, and the culture of palliative care, shape nurses' beliefs about relationships in their practice, the nature and types of relationships that can develop, and both client and family caregivers' access to care.

Bereaved family members' assessments of the quality of end-of-life care: what is important?

Families of patients are well poised to comment on the end-of-life (EOL) care received by those patients and can provide feedback to care providers and decision makers. To better understand family-member evaluations of the quality of in-patient EOL care, this study draws on qualitative interview data (n = 24) to identify core aspects of EOL care that are important for family members. Based on this analysis, a conceptual framework of family members' assessments of their experiences with EOL health care services is developed. Findings suggest the need to distinguish between perceived substantive or tangible features of received care, interpretations of the causes and symbolic meanings of that care, and personal and affective outcomes. Practitioners are encouraged to reflect on how behaviours and communications may be interpreted by families. Attention also needs to be given to the changes in practice and organizational decision making that can facilitate more positive experiences for families and patients.

Exploring Family Caregivers’ Rationales for Nonuse of Formal Home Health Services When Caring for a Dying Family Member

Drawing on interviews with 26 bereaved individuals who provided care to a dying family member at home, the purpose of this article is to identify and explore motivations behind the “nonuse” of home health services. Participants resided in a Western Canadian regional health authority. In their accounts of not asking for help from formal providers, participants highlighted personal reasons, coping needs, and a lack of knowledge. In their accounts of refused help, they placed more emphasis on a perceived lack of need for help (including constructing themselves as capable and coping), as well as their perceptions of the quality and competence of formal services. Findings are compared against existing literature. Implications for health system policy and planning, and for home health nursing practice, training and education, particularly with reference to situations in which responsibility is left with families to ask for help from formal providers, are also discussed.

Home care nurses' decisions about the need for and amount of service at the end of life

AIMS

We explore home care nurse decision-making about the need for and amount of service by clients and families at the end of life. We identify factors nurses refer to when describing these decisions, situated within contextual features of nursing practice.

BACKGROUND

Home care nurses are often responsible for decisions which have an impact on the access of clients and families to services at the end of life. Understanding how these decisions, are made, factors that are considered, and contextual influences is critical for improving access and enhancing care.

METHODS

Qualitative data were collected between 2006 and 2008 from two samples of home care nurses: the first group (n = 29) recorded narrative descriptions of decisions made during visits to families. The second group (n = 27) completed in-person interviews focusing on access to care and their interactions with clients and families. Data were analysed with thematic coding and constant comparison.

FINDINGS

Participants described assessing client and family needs and capacity. These assessments, at times integrated with considerations about relationships with clients and families, inform predictive judgements about future visits; these judgments are integrated with workload and home health resource considerations. In describing decisions, participants referred to concepts such as expertise, practice ideals and approaches to care.

CONCLUSION

Findings highlight the role of considerations of family caregiver capacity, the influence of relationships and the importance of the context of practice, as part of a complete understanding of the complexity of access to care at the end of life.

A systematic review of instruments related to family caregivers of palliative care patients

Support for family caregivers is a core function of palliative care. However, there is a lack of consistency in the way needs are assessed, few longitudinal studies to examine the impact of caregiving, and a dearth of evidence-based interventions. In order to help redress this situation, identification of suitable instruments to examine the caregiving experience and the effectiveness of interventions is required. A systematic literature review was undertaken incorporating representatives of the European Association for Palliative Care's International Palliative Care Family Caregiver Research Collaboration and Family Carer Taskforce. The aim of the review was to identify articles that described the use of instruments administered to family caregivers of palliative care patients (pre and post-bereavement). Fourteen of the 62 instruments targeted satisfaction with service delivery and less than half were developed specifically for the palliative care context. In approximately 25% of articles psychometric data were not reported. Where psychometric results were reported, validity data were reported in less than half (42%) of these cases. While a considerable variety of instruments have been administered to family caregivers, the validity of some of these requires further consideration. We recommend that others be judicious before developing new instruments for this population.

Planning for End-of-Life Care: Findings from the Canadian Study of Health and Aging

Les étapes utilisées pour l'officialisation des préférences en matière de soins en fin de vie et les facteurs en rapport avec ces étapes sont flous dans la documentation. À l'aide des données de la troisième phase de l'Étude sur la santé et le vieillissement au Canada (ESVC-3), nous avons examiné les relations entre les prédicteurs démographiques et en matière de santé, et les trois résultats (à savoir si les participants avaient réfléchi à leurs préférences de fin de vie, s'ils en avaient discuté, ou s'ils les avaient officialisées), et s'il y avait des relations entre les trois résultats. La région de résidence au Canada, le sexe féminin, et davantage d'années de scolarité étaient des facteurs associés à des personnes ayant réfléchi à leurs préférences. La région de résidence, le sexe féminin, et le manque de déficience cognitive étaient associés aux discussions en matière de préférences, et la région de résidence et le fait de ne pas avoir de conjoint étaient associés au dépôt de documents officiels. Les résidents de l'Ontario étaient les plus enclins à avoir réfléchi à leurs préférences, à en avoir discuté, et à les avoir officialisées, tandis que les résidents des Maritimes étaient les moins enclins à y avoir pensé et à avoir agi en conséquence. Enfin, avoir réfléchi à leurs préférences était associé au fait d'en discuter, et y avoir réfléchi et en avoir discuté étaient chacun associés à l'officialisation des préférences. Ces résultats correspondent au postulat que l'exécution du mandat (directive par procuration) est un processus comportant plusieurs étapes. Avoir une meilleure idée de ce processus peut se révéler utile lors de l'élaboration d'interventions visant à promouvoir la planification des soins en fin de vie.

Patient real-time and 12-month retrospective perceptions of difficult communications in the cancer diagnostic period

Communication is a notoriously complex challenge in the cancer care context. Our program of research involves exploration of patient-provider communications across the cancer trajectory from the patient perspective.Toward this end, we have been following a cohort of 60 cancer patients, representing a range of tumor sites, from immediately after diagnosis through to recovery, chronic, or advanced disease. Drawing on interpretive description analytic techniques, we documented patterns and themes related to various components of the cancer journey. In this article, we report on findings pertaining to poor communication during the initial diagnostic period, as described by patients at the time of diagnosis and 1 year later.These findings illuminate the dynamics of communication problems during that complex period, and depict the mechanisms by which patients sought to confront these challenges to optimize their cancer care experience. On the basis of these findings, considered in the context of the body of available evidence, suggestions are proposed as to appropriate directions for system-level solutions to the complex communication challenges within cancer care.

The Impact of Work Interferences on Family Caregiver Outcomes

Most research into caregiver employment and outcomes conceives of employment as a dichotomous variable—employed or not. This study examines the relationship between work interferences and caregiver burden, well-being, and self-esteem within a modified stress process model. Regression models are employed using a population-based random sample of caregivers. Employment status effects on outcomes for the total sample are estimated, followed by estimations of the effects of work interferences on the same outcomes for the employed subsample. Employment status is unrelated to outcomes in the total sample. In the employed subsample, a 13-item work interferences scale is related to burden but unrelated to well-being and self-esteem. Of the 13 items, only “performance at work was affected because of caring for a care recipient” is associated with all three caregiver outcomes. These findings suggest that subjective assessment of work interferences may play a more important role than does employment status.

Interviewing family caregivers: implications of the caregiving context for the research interview

Family caregiving tends to involve strong and often competing emotional experiences. Most of our knowledge of caregiving stems from interview research, much of it cross-sectional in nature. In this article we explore the implications of interviews as a research method for understanding caregiving. Specifically, we address difficulties in interpreting participants' talk about caregiving when this talk is simultaneously an articulation of experience and an attempt to cope with that experience. Either uncritically accepting accounts as reflective of experience, without considering the role of coping, or making assumptions about the success of caregiver coping in this context, might be erroneous. Our own experiences of interviewing family caregivers in different research projects will be drawn upon as examples. We conclude by questioning the ability to draw conclusions about caregiving and/or caregiver coping based solely on interview research, and call for greater integration of observational and longitudinal methods in family caregiving research.

Use of palliative care services in a semirural program in British Columbia

INTRODUCTION

Although specialized palliative care services in rural areas are scarce, many people who are dying, and their families, want to remain in their homes or within their own community. As such, semirural communities across Canada have developed a variety of initiatives to address this need. The purpose of our paper is to describe a semirural palliative care program located in British Columbia.

METHODS

We used univariate and bivariate analyses to examine all patients for whom a palliative care bed was requested in the Saanich Peninsula Hospital Palliative Care Unit (PCU) between Jan. 1, 2005, and Dec. 31, 2006.

RESULTS

Data suggest that there is provision of care for local residents in this semirural community. Throughout 2005 and 2006, SPH received a total of 411 requests for a palliative care bed with about three-quarters of admissions coming from other units within the hospital and from local residents.

CONCLUSION

Use of services data collected from hospital charts can provide valuable information to help inform program and policy decision-makers. Yet such information is limited in relation to answering the question of whether the end-of-life needs of local residents are being met. Future studies should consider input from families and patients to enhance our understanding of the role of a PCU in a semirural environment.

Situated/being situated: Client and co-worker roles of family caregivers in hospice palliative care

Since the inception of the modern hospice movement, the patient and family caregiver (FCG) have been considered the unit of care; family members are identified as 'clients' within palliative care philosophy. Little research has focused on how FCGs define their roles within the hospice palliative care (HPC) system. The aim of this study was to describe how FCGs of dying cancer patients view their roles in relation to the HPC system. Secondary analysis of interviews with 36 bereaved FCGs in Western Canada, guided by interpretive descriptive methods, found that FCGs perceived themselves as having two roles: client and co-worker. FCGs situated themselves as clients, where they actively sought help from the health care system. FCGs at times also perceived they had been situated as clients by health care providers, and were more resistant to accepting help. In other comments FCGs situated themselves as co-workers, seeking out an active role within the HPC team, whereas in other instances, felt they were situated as co-workers by a health care system with limited financial and human resources. Findings suggest that greater emphasis be placed on helping family members identify suitable interventions depending on how they view their roles within the HPC system. How we define family members in relation to the HPC system may also require reconsideration to reflect a more current conceptualization of realities in end-of-life care.