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Nakanishi H, Walker DA, Bishop KJM, Wesson PJ, Yan Y, Soh S, Swaminathan S, Grzybowski BA. Dynamic internal gradients control and direct electric currents within nanostructured materials. NATURE NANOTECHNOLOGY 2011; 6:740-746. [PMID: 22002098 DOI: 10.1038/nnano.2011.165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2011] [Accepted: 09/06/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Switchable nanomaterials--materials that can change their properties and/or function in response to external stimuli-have potential applications in electronics, sensing and catalysis. Previous efforts to develop such materials have predominately used molecular switches that can modulate their properties by means of conformational changes. Here, we show that electrical conductance through films of gold nanoparticles coated with a monolayer of charged ligands can be controlled by dynamic, long-range gradients of both mobile counterions surrounding the nanoparticles and conduction electrons on the nanoparticle cores. The internal gradients and the electric fields they create are easily reconfigurable, and can be set up in such a way that electric currents through the nanoparticles can be modulated, blocked or even deflected so that they only pass through select regions of the material. The nanoion/counterion hybrids combine the properties of electronic conductors with those of ionic gels/polymers, are easy to process by solution-casting and, by controlling the internal gradients, can be reconfigured into different electronic elements (current rectifiers, switches and diodes).
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Grzybowski BA, Bishop KJM, Kowalczyk B, Wilmer CE. The 'wired' universe of organic chemistry. Nat Chem 2011; 1:31-6. [PMID: 21378798 DOI: 10.1038/nchem.136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The millions of reactions performed and compounds synthesized by organic chemists over the past two centuries connect to form a network larger than the metabolic networks of higher organisms and rivalling the complexity of the World Wide Web. Despite its apparent randomness, the network of chemistry has a well-defined, modular architecture. The network evolves in time according to trends that have not changed since the inception of the discipline, and thus project into chemistry's future. Analysis of organic chemistry using the tools of network theory enables the identification of most 'central' organic molecules, and for the prediction of which and how many molecules will be made in the future. Statistical analyses based on network connectivity are useful in optimizing parallel syntheses, in estimating chemical reactivity, and more.
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Stan CA, Tang SKY, Bishop KJM, Whitesides GM. Externally Applied Electric Fields up to 1.6 × 105 V/m Do Not Affect the Homogeneous Nucleation of Ice in Supercooled Water. J Phys Chem B 2010; 115:1089-97. [DOI: 10.1021/jp110437x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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54
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Walker DA, Wilmer CE, Kowalczyk B, Bishop KJM, Grzybowski BA. Precision assembly of oppositely and like-charged nanoobjects mediated by charge-induced dipole interactions. NANO LETTERS 2010; 10:2275-2280. [PMID: 20499927 DOI: 10.1021/nl1012079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
The range of electrostatic interactions controls precisely the mutual orientations of assembling charged nanoobjects. For nonspherically symmetric particles, polarization effects and induced dipoles can dominate charge-charge interactions. These charge-induced dipole interactions mediate orientation-specific aggregation of both oppositely and like-charged particles.
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Walker DA, Wilmer CE, Kowalczyk B, Bishop KJM, Grzybowski BA. Precision assembly of oppositely and like-charged nanoobjects mediated by charge-induced dipole interactions. NANO LETTERS 2010; 10:6-10. [PMID: 20499927 DOI: 10.1021/nl901625v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
The range of electrostatic interactions controls precisely the mutual orientations of assembling charged nanoobjects. For nonspherically symmetric particles, polarization effects and induced dipoles can dominate charge-charge interactions. These charge-induced dipole interactions mediate orientation-specific aggregation of both oppositely and like-charged particles.
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56
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Kowalczyk B, Bishop KJM, Smoukov SK, Grzybowski BA. Synthetic popularity reflects chemical reactivity. J PHYS ORG CHEM 2009. [DOI: 10.1002/poc.1535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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57
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Bishop KJM, Wilmer CE, Soh S, Grzybowski BA. Nanoscale forces and their uses in self-assembly. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2009; 5:1600-30. [PMID: 19517482 DOI: 10.1002/smll.200900358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 871] [Impact Index Per Article: 58.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
The ability to assemble nanoscopic components into larger structures and materials depends crucially on the ability to understand in quantitative detail and subsequently "engineer" the interparticle interactions. This Review provides a critical examination of the various interparticle forces (van der Waals, electrostatic, magnetic, molecular, and entropic) that can be used in nanoscale self-assembly. For each type of interaction, the magnitude and the length scale are discussed, as well as the scaling with particle size and interparticle distance. In all cases, the discussion emphasizes characteristics unique to the nanoscale. These theoretical considerations are accompanied by examples of recent experimental systems, in which specific interaction types were used to drive nanoscopic self-assembly. Overall, this Review aims to provide a comprehensive yet easily accessible resource of nanoscale-specific interparticle forces that can be implemented in models or simulations of self-assembly processes at this scale.
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Nakanishi H, Bishop KJM, Kowalczyk B, Nitzan A, Weiss EA, Tretiakov KV, Apodaca MM, Klajn R, Stoddart JF, Grzybowski BA. Photoconductance and inverse photoconductance in films of functionalized metal nanoparticles. Nature 2009; 460:371-5. [DOI: 10.1038/nature08131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 211] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2008] [Accepted: 05/11/2009] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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59
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Tretiakov KV, Bishop KJM, Grzybowski BA. Additivity of the Excess Energy Dissipation Rate in a Dynamically Self-Assembled System. J Phys Chem B 2009; 113:7574-8. [DOI: 10.1021/jp811473q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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60
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Tretiakov KV, Bishop KJM, Kowalczyk B, Jaiswal A, Poggi MA, Grzybowski BA. Mechanism of the Cooperative Adsorption of Oppositely Charged Nanoparticles. J Phys Chem A 2009; 113:3799-803. [DOI: 10.1021/jp809447m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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61
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Bishop KJM, Kowalczyk B, Grzybowski BA. Precipitation of Oppositely Charged Nanoparticles by Dilution and/or Temperature Increase. J Phys Chem B 2009; 113:1413-7. [DOI: 10.1021/jp8056493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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62
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Campbell CJ, Fialkowski M, Bishop KJM, Grzybowski BA. Mechanism of reactive wetting and direct visual determination of the kinetics of self-assembled monolayer formation. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2009; 25:9-12. [PMID: 19072068 DOI: 10.1021/la800726p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Reactive wetting (RW) of alkane thiols and disulfides on gold is studied experimentally using the wet stamping technique. Theoretical description based on Langevin dynamics is developed to explain the experimental results and to clarify the physical processes underlying RW. In this description, thermal fluctuations of the three-phase contact line combine with the surface reaction to gradually build a low-energy self-assembled monolayer (SAM) onto which the front propagates. The results of the model match the experiments and allow determination of the kinetic rate constants of SAM formation.
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63
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Grzybowski BA, Bishop KJM. Micro- and nanoprinting into solids using reaction-diffusion etching and hydrogel stamps. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2009; 5:22-27. [PMID: 19072932 DOI: 10.1002/smll.200800914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Micropatterned hydrogel stamps soaked in appropriate chemical etchants can imprint various types of micro- and nanoarchitectures into metals, conductive oxides, semiconductors, glasses, and crystals. Localized etching is mediated by a reaction-diffusion process initiated from the stamp microfeatures and gives lateral resolution down to approximately 300 nm. The method is well suited for the rapid prototyping of small-scale devices including multilevel microfluidic systems and curvilinear optical elements.
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Soh S, Bishop KJM, Grzybowski BA. Dynamic Self-Assembly in Ensembles of Camphor Boats. J Phys Chem B 2008; 112:10848-53. [DOI: 10.1021/jp7111457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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65
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Mahmud G, Bishop KJM, Chegel Y, Smoukov SK, Grzybowski BA. Wet-stamped precipitant gradients control the growth of protein microcrystals in an array of nanoliter wells. J Am Chem Soc 2008; 130:2146-7. [PMID: 18225903 DOI: 10.1021/ja078051k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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66
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Smoukov SK, Bishop KJM, Kowalczyk B, Kalsin AM, Grzybowski BA. Electrostatically “Patchy” Coatings via Cooperative Adsorption of Charged Nanoparticles. J Am Chem Soc 2007; 129:15623-30. [DOI: 10.1021/ja075456w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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67
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Bishop KJM, Grzybowski BA. “Nanoions”: Fundamental Properties and Analytical Applications of Charged Nanoparticles. Chemphyschem 2007; 8:2171-6. [PMID: 17763505 DOI: 10.1002/cphc.200700349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Mixtures of oppositely charged nanoparticles (NPs) precipitate sharply only at the point of NP electroneutrality. This behavior-reminiscent of the threshold precipitation of inorganic ions-is specific to the nanoscale and can be attributed to the formation of like-charged NP clusters stabilized in solution by mutual electrostatic repulsions. NP titrations based on this phenomenon provide a uniquely accurate tool for measuring charges tethered onto nanoscopic objects and for studying the thermodynamics of surface reactions at the nanoscale.
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68
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Klajn R, Bishop KJM, Grzybowski BA. Light-controlled self-assembly of reversible and irreversible nanoparticle suprastructures. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2007; 104:10305-9. [PMID: 17563381 PMCID: PMC1965508 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0611371104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 280] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Nanoparticles (NPs) decorated with ligands combining photoswitchable dipoles and covalent cross-linkers can be assembled by light into organized, three-dimensional suprastructures of various types and sizes. NPs covered with only few photoactive ligands form metastable crystals that can be assembled and disassembled "on demand" by using light of different wavelengths. For higher surface concentrations, self-assembly is irreversible, and the NPs organize into permanently cross-linked structures including robust supracrystals and plastic spherical aggregates.
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69
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Klajn R, Bishop KJM, Fialkowski M, Paszewski M, Campbell CJ, Gray TP, Grzybowski BA. Plastic and Moldable Metals by Self-Assembly of Sticky Nanoparticle Aggregates. Science 2007; 316:261-4. [PMID: 17431176 DOI: 10.1126/science.1139131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 249] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Deformable, spherical aggregates of metal nanoparticles connected by long-chain dithiol ligands self-assemble into nanostructured materials of macroscopic dimensions. These materials are plastic and moldable against arbitrarily shaped masters and can be thermally hardened into polycrystalline metal structures of controllable porosity. In addition, in both plastic and hardened states, the assemblies are electrically conductive and exhibit Ohmic characteristics down to approximately 20 volts per meter. The self-assembly method leading to such materials is applicable both to pure metals and to bimetallic structures of various elemental compositions.
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70
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Bishop KJM, Grzybowski BA. Localized chemical wave emission and mode switching in a patterned excitable medium. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2006; 97:128702. [PMID: 17026007 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.97.128702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2005] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Chemical waves are initiated from complex geometries in the excitable Belosouv-Zhabotinsky medium using a wet stamping technique. Because of the coupling between the system's chemical kinetics and geometry, waves are emitted only from selected locations. By varying the nature of the wave-triggering reagent (here formaldehyde or methanol), it is possible to switch between two spatially distinct modes of wave emission. The system's dynamics is studied numerically, and the results of modeling agree with experimental observations.
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71
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Bishop KJM, Gray TP, Fialkowski M, Grzybowski BA. Microchameleons: nonlinear chemical microsystems for amplification and sensing. CHAOS (WOODBURY, N.Y.) 2006; 16:037102. [PMID: 17014236 DOI: 10.1063/1.2240142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
In biological systems, the coupling of nonlinear biochemical kinetics and molecular transport enables functional sensing and "signal" amplification across many length scales. Drawing on biological inspiration, we describe how artificial reaction-diffusion (RD) microsystems can provide a basis for sensing applications, capable of amplifying micro- and nanoscopic events into macroscopic visual readouts. The RD applications reviewed here are based on a novel experimental technique, WETS for Wet Stamping, which offers unprecedented control over RD processes in microscopic and complex geometries. It is discussed how RD can be used to sense subtle differences in the thickness and/or absorptivity of thin absorptive films, amplify macromolecular phase transitions, detect the presence and quality of self-assembled monolayers, and provide dynamic spatiotemporal readouts of chemical "metabolites."
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72
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Bishop KJM, Klajn R, Grzybowski BA. The Core and Most Useful Molecules in Organic Chemistry. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2006; 45:5348-54. [PMID: 16835857 DOI: 10.1002/anie.200600881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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73
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Bishop KJM, Klajn R, Grzybowski BA. The Core and Most Useful Molecules in Organic Chemistry. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2006. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.200600881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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74
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Kalsin AM, Fialkowski M, Paszewski M, Smoukov SK, Bishop KJM, Grzybowski BA. Electrostatic Self-Assembly of Binary Nanoparticle Crystals with a Diamond-Like Lattice. Science 2006; 312:420-4. [PMID: 16497885 DOI: 10.1126/science.1125124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 598] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Self-assembly of charged, equally sized metal nanoparticles of two types (gold and silver) leads to the formation of large, sphalerite (diamond-like) crystals, in which each nanoparticle has four oppositely charged neighbors. Formation of these non-close-packed structures is a consequence of electrostatic effects specific to the nanoscale, where the thickness of the screening layer is commensurate with the dimensions of the assembling objects. Because of electrostatic stabilization of larger crystallizing particles by smaller ones, better-quality crystals can be obtained from more polydisperse nanoparticle solutions.
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75
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Fialkowski M, Bishop KJM, Klajn R, Smoukov SK, Campbell CJ, Grzybowski BA. Principles and Implementations of Dissipative (Dynamic) Self-Assembly. J Phys Chem B 2006; 110:2482-96. [PMID: 16471845 DOI: 10.1021/jp054153q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 197] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Dynamic self-assembly (DySA) processes occurring outside of thermodynamic equilibrium underlie many forms of adaptive and intelligent behaviors in natural systems. Relatively little, however, is known about the principles that govern DySA and the ways in which it can be extended to artificial ensembles. This article discusses recent advances in both the theory and the practice of nonequilibrium self-assembly. It is argued that a union of ideas from thermodynamics and dynamic systems' theory can provide a general description of DySA. In parallel, heuristic design rules can be used to construct DySA systems of increasing complexities based on a variety of suitable interactions/potentials on length scales from nanoscopic to macroscopic. Applications of these rules to magnetohydrodynamic DySA are also discussed.
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76
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Fialkowski M, Bishop KJM, Chubukov VA, Campbell CJ, Grzybowski BA. Architecture and Evolution of Organic Chemistry. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2005; 44:7263-9. [PMID: 16276556 DOI: 10.1002/anie.200502272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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77
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Fialkowski M, Bishop KJM, Chubukov VA, Campbell CJ, Grzybowski BA. Cover Picture: Architecture and Evolution of Organic Chemistry (Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 44/2005). Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2005. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.200590146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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78
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Fialkowski M, Bishop KJM, Chubukov VA, Campbell CJ, Grzybowski BA. Titelbild: Architecture and Evolution of Organic Chemistry (Angew. Chem. 44/2005). Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2005. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.200590145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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79
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Fialkowski M, Bishop KJM, Chubukov VA, Campbell CJ, Grzybowski BA. Architecture and Evolution of Organic Chemistry. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2005. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.200502272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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80
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Bishop KJM, Fiałkowski M, Grzybowski BA. Micropatterning Chemical Oscillations: Waves, Autofocusing, and Symmetry Breaking. J Am Chem Soc 2005; 127:15943-8. [PMID: 16277538 DOI: 10.1021/ja054851o] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Arrays of chemical oscillators are micropatterned by Wet Stamping. The technique is used to demonstrate that chemical waves can be initiated and controlled in oscillatory systems and that such waves can give rise to phenomena not observed in excitable media. Interoscillator coupling and synchronization, kinetic autofocusing, and twist-symmetry breaking are a consequence of the dependence of the oscillation phase on the local concentrations of reagents and on systems' geometry. Conditions under which a generic oscillatory system would exhibit such behaviors are determined.
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81
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Smoukov SK, Bishop KJM, Klajn R, Campbell CJ, Grzybowski BA. Cutting into Solids with Micropatterned Gels. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2005; 17:1361-1365. [PMID: 34412440 DOI: 10.1002/adma.200402086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2004] [Accepted: 01/11/2005] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Hydrogel stamps can microstructure solid surfaces, i.e., modify the surface topology of metals, glasses, and crystals. It is demonstrated that stamps soaked in an appropriate etchant can remove material with micrometer-scale precision. The Figure shows an array of concentric circles etched in glass using the immersion wet stamping process described (scale bar: 500 μm).
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82
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Campbell CJ, Smoukov SK, Bishop KJM, Grzybowski BA. Reactive surface micropatterning by wet stamping. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2005; 21:2637-2640. [PMID: 15779924 DOI: 10.1021/la046942p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Hydrogel stamps are used to reactively micropattern various types of substrates. The method, called reactive wet stamping (r-WETS), is general in nature and overcomes several limitations of conventional soft-lithographic techniques. Illustrative applications of r-WETS in surface wettability modification, deposition of metallic microstructures, preparation of supports for electrostatic self-assembly, and multistep reactive patterning are discussed.
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