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Trivedi NH, Guentzel MN, Rodriguez AR, Yu JJ, Forsthuber TG, Arulanandam BP. Mast cells: multitalented facilitators of protection against bacterial pathogens. Expert Rev Clin Immunol 2013; 9:129-38. [PMID: 23390944 DOI: 10.1586/eci.12.95] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Mast cells are crucial effector cells evoking immune responses against bacterial pathogens. The positioning of mast cells at the host-environment interface, and the multitude of pathogen-recognition receptors and preformed mediator granules make these cells potentially the earliest to respond to an invading pathogen. In this review, the authors summarize the receptors used by mast cells to recognize invading bacteria and discuss the function of immune mediators released by mast cells in control of bacterial infection. The interaction of mast cells with other immune cells, including macrophages, dendritic cells and T cells, to induce protective immunity is highlighted. The authors also discuss mast cell-based vaccine strategies and the potential application in control of bacterial disease.
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Kamalakaran S, Chaganty BKR, Gupta R, Guentzel MN, Chambers JP, Murthy AK, Arulanandam BP. Vaginal chlamydial clearance following primary or secondary infection in mice occurs independently of TNF-α. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2013; 3:11. [PMID: 23483844 PMCID: PMC3593625 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2013.00011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2013] [Accepted: 02/21/2013] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The role of TNF-α in chlamydial clearance is uncertain. Antibody-mediated depletion of TNF-α in mice and guinea pigs has been shown not to significantly affect chlamydial clearance, whereas production of TNF-α in addition to IFN-γ from T cells has been shown to correlate with enhanced clearance. The aim of our study is to evaluate the mechanistic role of TNF-α in clearance of primary and secondary chlamydial infection from the genital tract (GT) using C57BL/6 TNF-α deficient (TNF-α−/−) and wild type (WT) mice. Chlamydial shedding from the lower GT was evaluated following primary and secondary intravaginal challenge. Also, antibody and antigen specific cytokine responses were analyzed from the infected GT and spleens, and oviduct pathology determined to analyze the role of TNF-α in upper GT pathological sequelae. MHC II−/− mice, known to display muted adaptive immune responses and failure to resolve genital chlamydial infections, were used as a negative control. Following both primary and secondary genital chlamydial infection, TNF-α−/− mice exhibited elevated granzyme B production, but similar IFN-γ and antibody responses. Importantly, absence of TNF-α did not significantly alter the resolution of infection. However, TNF-α−/− mice displayed significantly reduced upper genital tract (UGT) pathology compared to WT mice. This study demonstrates mechanistically that optimal chlamydial clearance following primary and secondary chlamydial genital infection can occur in the complete absence of TNF-α, and considered with the reduction of upper GT pathology in TNF-α−/− mice, suggests that targeted induction of anti-chlamydial TNF-α responses by vaccination may be unnecessary, and moreover could be potentially pathogenic.
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Hunter C, Rodriguez A, Yu JJ, Chambers J, Guentzel MN, Arulanandam B. Comparison of bone marrow-derived and mucosal mast cells in controlling intramacrophage Francisella tularensis replication. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2012; 237:617-21. [PMID: 22688822 DOI: 10.1258/ebm.2012.011389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Although the importance of mast cells (MCs) in response to allergens has been characterized extensively, the contribution of these cells in host defense against bacterial pathogens is not well understood. Previously, we have demonstrated that the release of interleukin-4 by bone marrow-derived MCs inhibits intramacrophage replication of Francisella tularensis live vaccine strain (LVS). Because pneumonic tularemia is one of the several manifestations of infection by Francisella, it is important to determine whether MCs present in mucosal tissues, i.e. the lung, exhibit similar effects on LVS replication. On the basis of this rationale, we phenotypically compared mucosal mast cells (MMCs) to traditional bone marrow-derived MCs. Both cell types exhibited similar levels of cell surface expression of fragment crystal epsilon receptor I (FcεRI), mast/stem cell growth factor receptor (c-Kit) and major histocompatibility complex I (MHCI), as well as patterns of granulation. MMCs exhibited a comparable, but somewhat greater uptake of fluorescent-labeled beads compared with MCs, suggesting an increased phagocytic ability. MCs and MMCs co-cultured with primary macrophages exhibited comparable significant decreases in LVS replication compared with macrophages cultured alone. Collectively, these results suggest that MMCs are phenotypically similar to MCs and appear equally effective in the control of intramacrophage F. tularensis LVS replication.
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Rodriguez AR, Yu JJ, Guentzel MN, Navara CS, Klose KE, Forsthuber TG, Chambers JP, Berton MT, Arulanandam BP. Mast cell TLR2 signaling is crucial for effective killing of Francisella tularensis. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2012; 188:5604-11. [PMID: 22529298 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1200039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
TLR signaling is critical for early host defense against pathogens, but the contributions of mast cell TLR-mediated mechanisms and subsequent effector functions during pulmonary infection are largely unknown. We have previously demonstrated that mast cells, through the production of IL-4, effectively control Francisella tularensis replication. In this study, the highly human virulent strain of F. tularensis SCHU S4 and the live vaccine strain were used to investigate the contribution of mast cell/TLR regulation of Francisella. Mast cells required TLR2 for effective bacterial killing, regulation of the hydrolytic enzyme cathepsin L, and for coordination and trafficking of MHC class II and lysosomal-associated membrane protein 2. Infected TLR2(-/-) mast cells, in contrast to wild-type and TLR4(-/-) cells, lacked detectable IL-4 and displayed increased cell death with a 2-3 log increase of F. tularensis replication, but could be rescued with rIL-4 treatment. Importantly, MHC class II and lysosomal-associated membrane protein 2 localization with labeled F. tularensis in the lungs was greater in wild-type than in TLR2(-/-) mice. These results provide evidence for the important effector contribution of mast cells and TLR2-mediated signaling on early innate processes in the lung following pulmonary F. tularensis infection and provide additional insight into possible mechanisms by which intracellular pathogens modulate respiratory immune defenses.
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Li W, Murthy AK, Chaganty BKR, Guentzel MN, Seshu J, Chambers JP, Zhong G, Arulanandam BP. Immunization with dendritic cells pulsed ex vivo with recombinant chlamydial protease-like activity factor induces protective immunity against genital chlamydiamuridarum challenge. Front Immunol 2011; 2:73. [PMID: 22566862 PMCID: PMC3342055 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2011.00073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2011] [Accepted: 11/23/2011] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
We have shown that immunization with soluble recombinant chlamydial protease-like activity factor (rCPAF) and a T helper 1 type adjuvant can induce significantly enhanced bacterial clearance and protection against Chlamydia-induced pathological sequelae in the genital tract. In this study, we investigated the use of bone marrow derived dendritic cells (BMDCs) pulsed ex vivo with rCPAF + CpG in an adoptive subcutaneous immunization for the ability to induce protective immunity against genital chlamydial infection. We found that BMDCs pulsed with rCPAF + CpG efficiently up-regulated the expression of activation markers CD86, CD80, CD40, and major histocompatibility complex class II (MHC II), and secreted interleukin-12, but not IL-10 and IL-4. Mice adoptively immunized with rCPAF + CpG-pulsed BMDCs or UV-EB + CpG-pulsed BMDCs produced elevated levels of antigen-specific IFN-γ and enhanced IgG1 and IgG2a antibodies. Moreover, mice immunized with rCPAF + CpG-pulsed BMDCs or UV-EB + CpG-pulsed BMDCs exhibited significantly reduced genital Chlamydia shedding, accelerated resolution of infection, and reduced oviduct pathology when compared to infected mock-immunized animals. These results suggest that adoptive subcutaneous immunization with ex vivo rCPAF-pulsed BMDCs is an effective approach, comparable to that induced by UV-EB–BMDCs, for inducing robust anti-Chlamydia immunity.
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Thathiah P, Sanapala S, Rodriguez AR, Yu JJ, Murthy AK, Guentzel MN, Forsthuber TG, Chambers JP, Arulanandam BP. Non-FcεR bearing mast cells secrete sufficient interleukin-4 to control Francisella tularensis replication within macrophages. Cytokine 2011; 55:211-20. [PMID: 21565523 DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2011.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2010] [Revised: 04/04/2011] [Accepted: 04/15/2011] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Mast cells have classically been implicated in the triggering of allergic and anaphylactic reactions. However, recent findings have elucidated the ability of these cells to selectively release a variety of cytokines leading to bacterial clearance through neutrophil and dendritic cell mobilization, and suggest an important role in innate host defenses. Our laboratory has established a primary bone marrow derived mast cell-macrophage co-culture system and found that mast cells mediated a significant inhibition of Francisella tularensis live vaccine strain (LVS) uptake and replication within macrophages through contact and the secreted product interleukin-4 (IL-4). In this study, we utilized P815 mast cells and J774 macrophages to further investigate whether mast cell activation by non-FcεR driven signals could produce IL-4 and control intramacrophage LVS replication. P815 supernatants collected upon activation by the mast cell activating peptide MP7, as well as P815 cells co-cultured with J774 macrophages, exhibited marked inhibition of bacterial uptake and replication, which correlated with the production of IL-4. The inhibition noted in vitro was titratable and preserved at ratios relevant to cellular infiltration events following pulmonary challenge. Collectively, our data suggest that both primary mast cell and P815 mast cell (lacking FcεR) secreted IL-4 can control intramacrophage Francisella replication.
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Signarovitz A, Yu JJ, Ray H, Guentzel MN, Williams I, Yagita H, Berton M, Klose K, Arulanandam B. The elucidation of the oral/respiratory axis in inducing protective immunity against Francisella tularensis (161.22). THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2011. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.186.supp.161.22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
Using a Francisella tularensis subspecies novicida live attenuated vaccine strain (U112ΔiglB), we have shown that oral vaccination of C57BL/6 mice induces significant protective immunity against pulmonary challenge with the highly human virulent F. tularensis strain SCHU S4. This protection is primarily mediated by antigen-specific CD4+ T cells and IFN-γ production and is dependent on mucosal IgA expression. We are examining the mechanism(s) by which the oral/respiratory axis induces optimal protective immunity against F. tularensis. Intestinal M-cells play an important role in oral vaccination by trafficking antigens from the lumen to the lamina propria and in presentation of antigens to underlying APCs for the subsequent induction of mucosal immunity. We have shown that mCherry-labeled U112ΔiglB co-localizes to intestinal mouse M-cells by 90 minutes following vaccination. Localization to M-cells was further verified with mouse ileal loops. Translocation of U112ΔiglB has also been demonstrated through M-cell-like-cells in an in vitro transwell co-culture system similar to M-cell trophic enteric bacteria. Current studies are examining the functional importance of intestinal M-cells in induction of mucosal immunity for the rational development of an effective oral vaccine against pulmonary tularemia. These studies will provide information for the general design of oral vaccines using live attenuated bacterial strains.
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Signarovitz A, Yu JJ, Guentzel MN, Klose K, Arulanandam B. Intranasal vaccination with a defined live attenuated vaccine strain (Δ FTN0109) induces protective immunity against heterotypic pulmonary bacterial challenge. (106.29). THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2011. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.186.supp.106.29] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
The need for an efficacious vaccine against the potential bioterrorism agent Francisella tularensis is a consequence of its low infectious dose, high mortality rate, and ability to be spread via aerosol, leading to pneumonic disease. FTN0109 is a novel protein that may be associated with the outer membrane of the bacterium and which is expressed across all subspecies of Francisella. In this study, we sought to determine the efficacy of ΔFTN0109 as a putative vaccine candidate. Using intramacrophage replication assays, ΔFTN0109 has been shown to be highly attenuated for growth. Moreover, the LD50 for this defined vaccine strain is >105 CFU in BALB/c and C57BL/6 mice following intranasal challenge in comparison to its parental strain U112 (LD50<10 CFU). Intranasal vaccination with ΔFTN0109 induces the expression of splenic antigen-specific IFN-γ and IL-2, with concurrent induction of preferential Th1 humoral responses (increased serum IgG2a over IgG1). Intranasal immunization with ΔFTN0109 confers complete protection in BALB/c mice against a subsequent pulmonary challenge with the heterotypic subspecies holarctica Live Vaccine Strain (LVS). Lungs, livers, and spleens of vaccinated and LVS-challenged mice exhibited significant reductions in bacterial burdens compared to mock-vaccinated and challenged animals. Current studies are ongoing to further clarify the mechanisms by which protection is conferred following vaccination with ΔFTN0109.
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Nallaparaju KC, Yu JJ, Rodriguez SA, Zogaj X, Manam S, Guentzel MN, Seshu J, Murthy AK, Chambers JP, Klose KE, Arulanandam BP. Evasion of IFN-γ signaling by Francisella novicida is dependent upon Francisella outer membrane protein C. PLoS One 2011; 6:e18201. [PMID: 21483828 PMCID: PMC3069069 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0018201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2010] [Accepted: 02/24/2011] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Francisella tularensis is a Gram-negative facultative intracellular bacterium and the causative agent of the lethal disease tularemia. An outer membrane protein (FTT0918) of F. tularensis subsp. tularensis has been identified as a virulence factor. We generated a F. novicida (F. tularensis subsp. novicida) FTN_0444 (homolog of FTT0918) fopC mutant to study the virulence-associated mechanism(s) of FTT0918. Methods and Findings The ΔfopC strain phenotype was characterized using immunological and biochemical assays. Attenuated virulence via the pulmonary route in wildtype C57BL/6 and BALB/c mice, as well as in knockout (KO) mice, including MHC I, MHC II, and µmT (B cell deficient), but not in IFN-γ or IFN-γR KO mice was observed. Primary bone marrow derived macrophages (BMDM) prepared from C57BL/6 mice treated with rIFN-γ exhibited greater inhibition of intracellular ΔfopC than wildtype U112 strain replication; whereas, IFN-γR KO macrophages showed no IFN-γ-dependent inhibition of ΔfopC replication. Moreover, phosphorylation of STAT1 was downregulated by the wildtype strain, but not the fopC mutant, in rIFN-γ treated macrophages. Addition of NG-monomethyl-L-arginine, an NOS inhibitor, led to an increase of ΔfopC replication to that seen in the BMDM unstimulated with rIFN-γ. Enzymatic screening of ΔfopC revealed aberrant acid phosphatase activity and localization. Furthermore, a greater abundance of different proteins in the culture supernatants of ΔfopC than that in the wildtype U112 strain was observed. Conclusions F. novicida FopC protein facilitates evasion of IFN-γ-mediated immune defense(s) by down-regulation of STAT1 phosphorylation and nitric oxide production, thereby promoting virulence. Additionally, the FopC protein also may play a role in maintaining outer membrane stability (integrity) facilitating the activity and localization of acid phosphatases and other F. novicida cell components.
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Rodriguez AR, Yu JJ, Murthy AK, Guentzel MN, Klose KE, Forsthuber TG, Chambers JP, Berton MT, Arulanandam BP. Mast cell/IL-4 control of Francisella tularensis replication and host cell death is associated with increased ATP production and phagosomal acidification. Mucosal Immunol 2011; 4:217-26. [PMID: 20861832 PMCID: PMC3040285 DOI: 10.1038/mi.2010.59] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Mast cells are now recognized as effective modulators of innate immunity. We recently reported that mast cells and secreted interleukin-4 (IL-4) effectively control intramacrophage replication of Francisella tularensis Live Vaccine Strain (LVS), and that mice deficient in mast cells or IL-4 receptor (IL-4R(-/-)) exhibit greater susceptibility to pulmonary challenge. In this study, we further evaluated the mechanism(s) by which mast cells/IL-4 control intramacrophage bacterial replication and host cell death, and found that IL-4R(-/-) mice exhibited significantly greater induction of active caspase-3 within lung macrophages than wild-type animals following intranasal challenge with either LVS or the human virulent type A strain SCHU S4. Treatment of LVS-infected bone-marrow-derived macrophages with a pancaspase inhibitor (zVAD) did not alter bacterial replication, but minimized active caspase-3 and other markers (Annexin V and propidium iodide) of cell death, whereas treatment with both rIL-4 and zVAD resulted in concomitant reduction of both parameters, suggesting that inhibition of bacterial replication by IL-4 was independent of caspase activation. Interestingly, IL-4-treated infected macrophages exhibited significantly increased ATP production and phagolysosomal acidification, as well as enhanced mannose receptor upregulation and increased internalization with acidification, which correlated with observations in mast cell-macrophage co-cultures, with resultant decreases in F. tularensis replication.
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MESH Headings
- Adenosine Triphosphate/biosynthesis
- Animals
- Caspase 3/metabolism
- Cell Death/immunology
- Cells, Cultured
- Enzyme Activation/drug effects
- Enzyme Inhibitors/pharmacology
- Francisella tularensis/growth & development
- Francisella tularensis/immunology
- Gene Expression Regulation
- Host-Pathogen Interactions
- Interleukin-4/immunology
- Lectins, C-Type/metabolism
- Macrophages, Alveolar/enzymology
- Macrophages, Alveolar/immunology
- Macrophages, Alveolar/pathology
- Mannose Receptor
- Mannose-Binding Lectins/metabolism
- Mast Cells/immunology
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred BALB C
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Knockout
- Oligopeptides/pharmacology
- Organelles/chemistry
- Organelles/microbiology
- Phagosomes/chemistry
- Phagosomes/immunology
- Receptors, Cell Surface/metabolism
- Receptors, Interleukin-4/genetics
- Receptors, Interleukin-4/immunology
- Signal Transduction/immunology
- Tularemia/immunology
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Murthy AK, Chaganty BKR, Troutman T, Guentzel MN, Yu JJ, Ali SK, Lauriano CM, Chambers JP, Klose KE, Arulanandam BP. Mannose-containing oligosaccharides of non-specific human secretory immunoglobulin A mediate inhibition of Vibrio cholerae biofilm formation. PLoS One 2011; 6:e16847. [PMID: 21347387 PMCID: PMC3036728 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0016847] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2010] [Accepted: 01/13/2011] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The role of antigen-specific secretory IgA (SIgA) has been studied extensively, whereas there is a limited body of evidence regarding the contribution of non-specific SIgA to innate immune defenses against invading pathogens. In this study, we evaluated the effects of non-specific SIgA against infection with Vibrio cholerae O139 strain MO10 and biofilm formation. Seven day old infant mice deficient in IgA (IgA-/- mice) displayed significantly greater intestinal MO10 burden at 24 hr post-challenge when compared to IgA+/+ pups. Importantly, cross-fostering of IgA-/- pups with IgA+/+ nursing dams reversed the greater susceptibility to MO10 infection, suggesting a role for non-specific SIgA in protection against the infection. Since biofilm formation is associated with virulence of MO10, we further examined the role of human non-specific SIgA on this virulence phenotype of the pathogen. Human non-specific SIgA, in a dose-dependent fashion, significantly reduced the biofilm formation by MO10 without affecting the viability of the bacterium. Such an inhibitory effect was not induced by human serum IgA, IgG, or IgM, suggesting a role for the oligosaccharide-rich secretory component (SC) of SIgA. This was supported by the demonstration that SIgA treated with endoglycosidase H, to cleave the high-mannose containing terminal chitobiose residues, did not induce a reduction in biofilm formation by MO10. Furthermore, the addition of free mannose per se, across a wide dose range, induced significant reduction in MO10 biofilm formation. Collectively, these results suggest that mannose containing oligosacchardies within human non-specific secretory IgA can alter important virulence phenotypes of Vibrio cholerae such as biofilm formation, without affecting viability of the microorganism. Such effects may contribute significantly to innate immune defenses against invading pathogens in vivo in the gastrointestinal tract.
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Murthy AK, Li W, Guentzel MN, Zhong G, Arulanandam BP. Vaccination with the defined chlamydial secreted protein CPAF induces robust protection against female infertility following repeated genital chlamydial challenge. Vaccine 2011; 29:2519-22. [PMID: 21300093 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.01.074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2010] [Revised: 01/19/2011] [Accepted: 01/23/2011] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
We previously have shown the efficacy of recombinant (r) chlamydial protease-like activity factor (CPAF) vaccination against hydrosalpinx development following primary genital chlamydial challenge. In this study, we evaluated further the protection induced by rCPAF vaccination against infertility. Following primary challenge, fertility levels were not significantly different between the mock- and CPAF-vaccinated and Chlamydia alone challenged mice. However, following secondary genital chlamydial challenge, mock (PBS) immunized mice displayed a significant reduction of fertility compared to age-matched naïve mice, while mice vaccinated intranasally with rCPAF+CpG displayed significant prevention of infertility. These results suggest that hydrosalpinx may be a reliable indicator of impending infertility, and that rCPAF is a promising candidate to prevent infertility resulting from repeated genital chlamydial infections.
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Jupelli M, Selby DM, Guentzel MN, Chambers JP, Forsthuber TG, Zhong G, Murthy AK, Arulanandam BP. The contribution of interleukin-12/interferon-gamma axis in protection against neonatal pulmonary Chlamydia muridarum challenge. J Interferon Cytokine Res 2010; 30:407-15. [PMID: 20187773 DOI: 10.1089/jir.2009.0083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Neonatal Chlamydia trachomatis pneumonia has been associated with respiratory sequelae in later life. We recently established a mouse model of neonatal pulmonary Chlamydia muridaum infection and found an important contribution of IFN-gamma to protective immunity. In this study, we further characterized the role of Th1-type cytokines; IL-12, IFN-gamma, and IFN-gamma signaling using mice genetically deficient in IL-12, IFN-gamma, or IFN-gamma receptor 1. All 3 knockout (KO) mice challenged intranasally with C. muridarum 1 day after birth exhibited 100% mortality by day 17 post-challenge whereas wild-type (WT) animals survived the monitoring period of 1 month. The KO mice exhibited greater lung bacterial burdens and enhanced dissemination to the liver, compared to WT animals. The inflammatory cellular infiltration in C. muridarum-challenged KO animals was significantly reduced in the lungs, but markedly enhanced in the livers of the KO mice compared to similarly challenged WT mice. It was also found that a deficiency in IL-12 or IFN-gamma resulted in correspondingly reduced IFN-gamma or IL-12 production, respectively, suggesting an intricate interdependence in the induction of these cytokines. Collectively, these results suggest that the IL-12/ IFN-gamma axis induces pulmonary cellular infiltration, induces bacterial clearance from the lung, reduces dissemination to other organs, and promotes the survival of the host during neonatal pulmonary chlamydial infection.
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Ray HJ, Chu P, Wu TH, Lyons CR, Murthy AK, Guentzel MN, Klose KE, Arulanandam BP. The Fischer 344 rat reflects human susceptibility to francisella pulmonary challenge and provides a new platform for virulence and protection studies. PLoS One 2010; 5:e9952. [PMID: 20376351 PMCID: PMC2848594 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0009952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2010] [Accepted: 03/05/2010] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The pathogenesis of Francisella tularensis, the causative agent of tularemia, has been primarily characterized in mice. However, the high degree of sensitivity of mice to bacterial challenge, especially with the human virulent strains of F. tularensis, limits this animal model for screening of defined attenuated vaccine candidates for protection studies. Methods and Findings We analyzed the susceptibility of the Fischer 344 rat to pulmonary (intratracheal) challenge with three different subspecies (subsp) of F. tularensis that reflect different levels of virulence in humans, and characterized the bacterial replication profile in rat bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDM). In contrast to the mouse, Fischer 344 rats exhibit a broader range of sensitivity to pulmonary challenge with the human virulent subsp. tularensis and holarctica. Unlike mice, Fischer rats exhibited a high degree of resistance to pulmonary challenge with LVS (an attenuated derivative of subsp. holarctica) and subsp. novicida. Within BMDM, subsp. tularensis and LVS showed minimal replication, subsp. novicida showed marginal replication, and subsp. holartica replicated robustly. The limited intramacrophage replication of subsp. tularensis and novicida strains was correlated with the induction of nitric oxide production. Importantly, Fischer 344 rats that survived pulmonary infection with subsp. novicida were markedly protected against subsequent pulmonary challenge with subsp. tularensis, suggesting that subsp. novicida may be a useful platform for the development of vaccines against subsp. tularensis. Conclusions The Fischer 344 rat exhibits similar sensitivity to F. tularensis strains as that reported for humans, and thus the Fischer 344 ray may serve as a better animal model for tularemia vaccine development.
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Chaganty BKR, Murthy AK, Evani SJ, Li W, Guentzel MN, Chambers JP, Zhong G, Arulanandam BP. Heat denatured enzymatically inactive recombinant chlamydial protease-like activity factor induces robust protective immunity against genital chlamydial challenge. Vaccine 2010; 28:2323-9. [PMID: 20056182 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2009.12.064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2009] [Revised: 12/10/2009] [Accepted: 12/23/2009] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
We have shown previously that vaccination with recombinant chlamydial protease-like activity factor (rCPAF) plus interleukin-12 as an adjuvant induces robust protective immunity against primary genital Chlamydia muridarum challenge in mice. Since CPAF is a protease, we compared the effects of enzymatically active and inactive (heat denatured) rCPAF to determine whether proteolytic activity is expendable for the induction of protective immunity against chlamydial challenge. Active, but not inactive, rCPAF immunization induced high levels of anti-active CPAF antibody, whereas both induced robust splenic CPAF-specific IFN-gamma production. Vaccination with active or inactive rCPAF induced enhanced vaginal chlamydial clearance as early as day 6 with complete resolution of infection by day 18, compared to day 30 in mock-vaccinated and challenged animals. Importantly, significant and comparable reductions in oviduct pathology were observed in active and inactive rCPAF-vaccinated mice compared to mock-vaccinated animals. Thus, rCPAF induced anti-chlamydial immunity is largely independent of enzymatic activity and secondary or higher order protein conformation.
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Murthy AK, Guentzel MN, Zhong G, Arulanandam BP. Chlamydial protease-like activity factor--insights into immunity and vaccine development. J Reprod Immunol 2009; 83:179-84. [PMID: 19853923 DOI: 10.1016/j.jri.2009.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2008] [Revised: 04/24/2009] [Accepted: 05/12/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Chlamydia trachomatis is a Gram-negative obligate intracellular pathogen that remains the leading cause of bacterial sexually transmitted disease worldwide, despite the availability of efficacious antimicrobial therapy. Given that chlamydial infections cause severe pathological sequelae in the upper genital tract, a licensed vaccine to prevent infection and disease would be an ideal solution. Chlamydial protease-like activity factor (CPAF) is a protein secreted in considerable amounts into the cytosol of infected cells and released into the extracellular milieu upon cellular lysis, which therefore is accessible to the host immune system. This is further substantiated by the observation that CPAF is immunodominant among other antigens in Chlamydia sero-positive humans. The efficacy of vaccination with CPAF against genital chlamydial challenge has been evaluated extensively in the murine model. This review will discuss important insights into the potential of CPAF as a component of an anti-chlamydial vaccine.
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King MD, Guentzel MN, Arulanandam BP, Lupiani B, Chambers JP. Proteolytic bacteria in the lower digestive tract of poultry may affect avian influenza virus pathogenicity. Poult Sci 2009; 88:1388-93. [PMID: 19531708 DOI: 10.3382/ps.2008-00549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Proteolytic cleavage of hemagglutinin is required for cell entry by receptor-mediated endocytosis and plays a key role in pathogenicity of the influenza virus. Despite several studies describing relationships between bacterial proteases and influenza A viral activation in mammals, very little is known about the role of the normal bacterial flora of birds on hemagglutinin activation. We examined the indigenous intestinal microflora of 100 mixed-sex, 27-d-old Ross chickens from a commercial poultry facility for protease-secreting bacteria. Protease-secreting bacteria were isolated from 82 of 100 chickens with 50 birds exhibiting 2 or more protease-secreting bacterial species. A total of 20 protease-secreting bacterial species were identified: 17 gram-positive cocci, 2 gram-positive rods, and 1 gram-negative rod. Enterococcus faecalis, Enterococcus gallinarum, and Proteus mirabilis were the most frequently observed protease-secreting bacterial species. The presence of proteolytic bacteria in the intestinal tract of poultry in this study suggests the possibility of yet-to-be-described role(s) in cleavage of hemagglutinin that may alter the pathogenicity of avian influenza viruses.
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Murthy AK, Chaganty BKR, Li W, Guentzel MN, Chambers JP, Seshu J, Zhong G, Arulanandam BP. A limited role for antibody in protective immunity induced by rCPAF and CpG vaccination against primary genital Chlamydia muridarum challenge. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009; 55:271-9. [PMID: 19281569 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-695x.2008.00517.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Mice deficient in B cells (micromT mice) were used to evaluate the role of antibody in enhanced chlamydial clearance and reduction of pathology afforded by vaccination with recombinant chlamydial protease-like activity factor (rCPAF). Enhanced, but comparable, chlamydial clearance was observed in micromT and wild-type (WT) mice after rCPAF+CpG vaccination. Chlamydia-induced pathology was present in mock-immunized animals, but at significantly greater levels in micromT than WT mice, whereas vaccinated micromT and WT mice exhibited similar reductions in pathology. Thus, antibodies may play a role in protection against chlamydial pathology after primary infection, but were largely dispensable in rCPAF+CpG-induced chlamydial clearance and reduction in pathology.
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Rodriguez AR, Yu J, Murthy A, Guentzel MN, Klose KE, Chambers JP, Forsthurber TG, Berton MT, Arulanandam BP. Mast cells induce alternative activation and inhibit caspase-3 mediated apoptosis of Francisella tularensis infected macrophages (44.24). THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2009. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.182.supp.44.24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
Francisella tularensis is a highly infectious Gram-negative bacterial pathogen and the causative agent of pneumonic tularemia. We recently demonstrated inhibition of F. tularensis LVS replication in macrophages via mast cell production of interleukin-4 (IL-4). We have further analyzed the interactions of mast cells and macrophages using a primary bone marrow derived mast cell-macrophage co-culture system and determined that mast cells inhibit F. tularensis-induced macrophage apoptosis. Specifically, mast cells co-cultured with macrophages significantly reduced intramacrophage LVS growth and expression of apoptotic proteins caspase-3 (19.9%) and PARP (Poly-ADP ribose polymerase, 16.0%) compared to macrophages cultured alone (48.2% and 56.4%, respectively). The inhibition of LVS-induced apoptosis within infected macrophages also was seen by the direct addition of recombinant IL-4 and corresponded with up-regulation of mannose receptor expression and arginase activity which are associated with the alternative activation of macrophages. Moreover, IL4R-/- mice were more susceptible to intranasal challenge and exhibited greater caspase-3 activity in lung macrophages (12.9%) compared to similarly challenged wild-type (4.7%) animals. These results support a role for mast cells and IL-4 in control of bacterial replication and apoptosis following pulmonary LVS infection.
National Institutes of Health grant PO1 AI057986; NIH/NIGMS MBRS-RISE GM60655
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Li W, Murthy AK, Guentzel MN, Seshu J, Forsthuber TG, Zhong G, Arulanandam BP. Antigen-specific CD4+ T cells produce sufficient IFN-gamma to mediate robust protective immunity against genital Chlamydia muridarum infection. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2008; 180:3375-82. [PMID: 18292563 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.180.5.3375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Chlamydia has been shown to evade host-specific IFN-gamma-mediated bacterial killing; however, IFN-gamma-deficient mice exhibit suboptimal late phase vaginal Chlamydia muridarum clearance, greater dissemination, and oviduct pathology. These findings introduce constraints in understanding results from murine chlamydial vaccination studies in context of potential implications to humans. In this study, we used mice deficient in either IFN-gamma or the IFN-gamma receptor for intranasal vaccination with a defined secreted chlamydial Ag, chlamydial protease-like activity factor (CPAF), plus CpG and examined the role of IFN-gamma derived from adoptively transferred Ag-specific CD4+ T cells in protective immunity against genital C. muridarum infection. We found that early Ag-specific IFN-gamma induction and CD4+ T cell infiltration correlates with the onset of genital chlamydial clearance. Adoptively transferred IFN-gamma competent CPAF-specific CD4+ T cells failed to enhance the resolution of genital chlamydial infection within recipient IFN-gamma receptor-deficient mice. Conversely, IFN-gamma production from adoptively transferred CPAF-specific CD4+ T cells was sufficient in IFN-gamma-deficient mice to induce early resolution of infection and reduction of subsequent pathology. These results provide the first direct evidence that enhanced anti-C. muridarum protective immunity induced by Ag-specific CD4+ T cells is dependent upon IFN-gamma signaling and that such cells produce sufficient IFN-gamma to mediate the protective effects. Additionally, MHC class II pathway was sufficient for induction of robust protective anti-C. muridarum immunity. Thus, targeting soluble candidate Ags via MHC class II to CD4+ T cells may be a viable vaccine strategy to induce optimal IFN-gamma production for effective protective immunity against human genital chlamydial infection.
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Jupelli M, Guentzel MN, Meier PA, Zhong G, Murthy AK, Arulanandam BP. Endogenous IFN-gamma production is induced and required for protective immunity against pulmonary chlamydial infection in neonatal mice. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2008; 180:4148-55. [PMID: 18322226 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.180.6.4148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Chlamydia trachomatis infection in neonates, not adults, has been associated with the development of chronic respiratory sequelae. Adult chlamydial infections induce Th1-type responses that subsequently clear the infection, whereas the neonatal immune milieu in general has been reported to be biased toward Th2-type responses. We examined the protective immune responses against intranasal Chlamydia muridarum challenge in 1-day-old C57BL/6 and BALB/c mice. Infected C57BL/6 pups displayed earlier chlamydial clearance (day 14) compared with BALB/c pups (day 21). However, challenged C57BL/6 pups exhibited prolonged deficits in body weight gain (days 12-30) compared with BALB/c pups (days 9-12), which correlated with continual pulmonary cellular infiltration. Both strains exhibited a robust Th1-type response, including elevated titers of serum antichlamydial IgG2a and IgG2b, not IgG1, and elevated levels of splenic C. muridarum-specific IFN-gamma, not IL-4, production. Additionally, elevated IFN-gamma, not IL-4 expression, was observed locally in the infected lungs of both mouse strains. The immune responses in C57BL/6 pups were significantly greater compared with BALB/c pups after chlamydial challenge. Importantly, infected mice deficient in IFN-gamma or IFN-gamma receptor demonstrated enhanced chlamydial dissemination, and 100% of animals died by 2 wk postchallenge. Collectively, these results indicate that neonatal pulmonary chlamydial infection induces a robust Th1-type response, with elevated pulmonary IFN-gamma production, and that endogenous IFN-gamma is important in protection against this infection. The enhanced IFN-gamma induction in the immature neonatal lung also may be relevant to the development of respiratory sequelae in adult life.
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Yu JJ, Raulie EK, Murthy AK, Guentzel MN, Klose KE, Arulanandam BP. The presence of infectious extracellular Francisella tularensis subsp. novicida in murine plasma after pulmonary challenge. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2007; 27:323-5. [PMID: 18087734 DOI: 10.1007/s10096-007-0434-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2007] [Accepted: 11/19/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Cong Y, Jupelli M, Guentzel MN, Zhong G, Murthy AK, Arulanandam BP. Intranasal immunization with chlamydial protease-like activity factor and CpG deoxynucleotides enhances protective immunity against genital Chlamydia muridarum infection. Vaccine 2007; 25:3773-80. [PMID: 17349723 PMCID: PMC2757645 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2007.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2006] [Revised: 02/01/2007] [Accepted: 02/07/2007] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
We have reported recently that intranasal (i.n.) vaccination with chlamydial protease-like activity factor (CPAF) and interleukin-12 (IL-12) enhances protective immunity against genital chlamydial challenge. In this study, we show that i.n. or intraperitoneal (i.p.) vaccination with CPAF plus CpG deoxynucleotides (CpG), an alternative T helper 1 (Th1) adjuvant, induced robust CPAF-specific IFN-gamma responses and elevated levels of serum antibody and vaginal IgA production. CPAF+CpG vaccinated animals displayed accelerated genital chlamydial clearance, and minimal hydrosalpinx and inflammatory cellular infiltration compared to mock-immunized (PBS) challenged animals. Together, CpG dexoynucleotides are an efficacious alternative Th1 adjuvant with CPAF to induce protective anti-chlamydial immunity.
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Murphey C, Murthy AK, Meier PA, Guentzel MN, Zhong G, Arulanandam BP. The protective efficacy of chlamydial protease-like activity factor vaccination is dependent upon CD4+ T cells. Cell Immunol 2006; 242:110-7. [PMID: 17116296 PMCID: PMC1885537 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellimm.2006.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2006] [Revised: 10/04/2006] [Accepted: 10/06/2006] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
We have previously determined the protective efficacy of intranasal vaccination with chlamydial protease-like activity factor (CPAF) against genital chlamydial infection. Since T-helper 1 (Th1) responses are important for anti-chlamydial immunity, we examined the contribution of CD4(+) T cells in CPAF mediated immunity against intravaginal (i.vag.) Chlamydia muridarum infection in C57BL/6 mice. CPAF+IL-12 vaccination induced antigen-specific CD4(+) T cells that secreted elevated levels of IFN-gamma, and generated strong humoral responses. The protective effects of CPAF vaccination against genital chlamydial challenge were abrogated by anti-CD4 neutralizing antibody treatment. Moreover, anti-chlamydial immunity could be adoptively transferred to naïve recipients using CPAF-specific CD4(+) T cells. Therefore, CPAF mediated anti-chlamydial immunity is highly dependent upon antigen-specific CD4(+) T cells.
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Murthy AK, Cong Y, Murphey C, Guentzel MN, Forsthuber TG, Zhong G, Arulanandam BP. Chlamydial protease-like activity factor induces protective immunity against genital chlamydial infection in transgenic mice that express the human HLA-DR4 allele. Infect Immun 2006; 74:6722-9. [PMID: 17015458 PMCID: PMC1698050 DOI: 10.1128/iai.01119-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
There is no licensed vaccine available against Chlamydia trachomatis, the leading cause of bacterial sexually transmitted disease. We have found that intranasal immunization with recombinant chlamydial protease-like activity factor (CPAF) induces CD4(+) T-cell- and gamma interferon (IFN-gamma)-dependent protective immunity against murine genital chlamydial infection, thus making CPAF a viable vaccine candidate for further characterization. HLA-DR4 is the predominant allele involved in chlamydial antigen presentation to CD4(+) T cells in humans. We used engineered mice that lack endogenous major histocompatibility complex class II (MHC-II) alleles but express a human HLA allele (HLA-DR4 transgenic [tg] mice) to examine primary immune and CPAF-mediated responses against genital Chlamydia muridarum challenge. Upon primary bacterial exposure, HLA-DR4 tg mice developed Chlamydia-specific IFN-gamma and antibody production and resolved the infection within 30 days, similar to challenged conventional C57BL/6 animals. Moreover, C. muridarum-challenged HLA-DR4 tg mice exhibited CPAF-specific antibody and IFN-gamma production. Upon CPAF-plus-interleukin-12 (IL-12) vaccination, HLA-DR4 tg animals exhibited robust CPAF-specific IFN-gamma production and elevated titers of anti-CPAF total antibody and immunoglobulin G2a (IgG2a) and lower titers of IgG2b and IgG1 antibodies. HLA-DR4 tg and C57BL/6 mice vaccinated with CPAF plus IL-12 resolved the primary genital chlamydial infection significantly earlier than mock-immunized animals, whereas similarly vaccinated MHC class II-deficient mice displayed minimal antigen-specific immune responses and failed to resolve the infection even at 30 days postchallenge. Together, these results demonstrate the importance of human HLA-DR4 molecules in the recognition and presentation of CPAF epitopes, leading to the generation of protective antichlamydial immunity and making these mice a valuable model for mapping HLA-DR4-restricted chlamydial epitopes.
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