The outcome of commercial kidney transplant tourism in Pakistan

The lack of cadaver organs for transplantation motivates some Balkan patients to go to developing countries to buy a kidney. We have followed 36 patients who received kidney transplants in Lahore and Rawalpindi, Pakistan. The patients had not been cleared for transplantation with a standard pre-transplant work-up: 80% were hepatitis-C virus (HCV) or HBsAg positive. During follow-up, seven patients died. Sixteen patients experienced wound infections with post-operative hernias, and three patients developed peri-renal hematomas. Six abscesses and four lymphoceles occurred, and four urinary fistulas were surgically treated. Nephrectomy was performed in three patients because of renal artery thrombosis. Nine patients developed active hepatitis C, and four patients manifested cytomegalovirus disease. Three patients developed steroid diabetes, and three patients experienced acute myocardial infarction. Nine patients had one or more rejection episodes. Urinary tract infection with Pseudomonas or Escherichia occurred frequently. The one-yr patient and graft survival rates were 80% and 68%, respectively. Paid unregulated renal transplantation is not recommended for both ethical reasons and because of an association with excessive morbidity and mortality.

Clinical importance of insulin resistance after renal transplantation in patients on triple immunosuppressive therapy with cyclosporine, corticosteroids and mycophenolate mofetil

INTRODUCTION

Post-transplant diabetes mellitus and impaired glucose tolerance are confirmed complications after solid organ transplantation associated with the use of glucocorticoids and calcinuerin inhibitors in maintenance immunosuppression. Insulin resistance (IR) is also an independent factor for cardiovascular morbidity and mortality among renal allograft patients. The aim of our work was to investigate the clinical importance of elevated IR in renal transplant recipients on standard triple-drug immunosuppression in correlation with immunosuppressive therapy and certain independent factors such as body mass index (BMI), time after transplantation, lipid disorders, etc.

METHODS

36 allograft pts with different periods after transplantation without previous glucose disorders were included in the study. An oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) was made to distinguish pts with or without glucose disorders. The basal values of glucose (G) and insulin (I) were used to calculate indexes of IR and beta-cell function according to the homeostasis equations. Impaired fasting glucose (IFG), impairred glucose tolerance (IGT), impaired post prandial hyperglycemia (IPPH) and diabetes mellitus (DM) were also analysed.

RESULTS

The mean value of the IR index was 2.57 +/- 1.20. It was elevated in 31 pts (86%) The IR showed a positive correlation with: I0 (p < 0.01), I2 (p < 0.05), beta cell function (p < 0.05) and CsA (p < 0.01). The fasting I, G, and BMI were shown as independent risk factors for IR (p < 0.01, p < 0.01, and p < 0.05 respectively). There were 12 pts with different glucose disorders (IFG, IGT, DM) and 24 pts without. The pts with glucose disorders showed an elevated IR index (91%) more frequently compared with (41.67%) decreased beta-cell function.

CONCLUSION

IR is frequent among renal recipients with and without glucose disorders. IR is an independent risk factor for atherogenesis. Higher CsA trough levels are assotiated with higher Insulin values and indexes of IR. The defect in insulin action is more a prominent mechanism in post-transplant glucose disorders than the impaired insulin secretion.

Hypertension and progression of nephropathy in diabetic and non-diabetic chronic kidney disease patients

BACKGROUND

Hypertension is associated with more rapid progression of chronic kidney disease. Several studies have shown that treating hypertension in patients with chronic kidney disease and proteinuria may attenuate the decline in glomerular filtration rate.

STUDY OBJECTIVE

The study evaluates the prevalence of hypertension and its association with chronic kidney disease progression in patients without and with diabetic nephropathy.

METHODS

Patients with CKD stage 2-4 were followed up by a nephrologist for 12-52 months. A total of 137 patients were included in the study, 70 with non-diabetic CKD and 67 with type 2 diabetes and diabetic nephropathy. Demographic and clinical parameters were recorded at initiation and during follow-up. Glomerular filtration rate was estimated by the Cockroft-Gault formula and progression of CKD by the slope of the estimated GFR decline.

RESULTS

Out of 70 patients in the non-diabetic group, 34 were males, (mean age 50.37+/-12.2 years). Out of 67 diabetic patients, 30 were (males, mean age 57.8+/-8.4 years). 77% in the non-diabetic group had SBP above 140 mmHg. The higher SBP was associated with older age, (53.16+/-10.8 vs 40.9+/-12.2 years, p<0.0001). Diastolic blood pressure above 90 was present in 73%. Pulse pressure above 80 had 5.7% and was associated with older age (p<0.02). Progression of chronic kidney disease correlated inversely with age, and positively with diastolic blood pressure and proteinuria (p=0.005, p=0.019 and p=0.02 respectively). Multiple regression analysis showed that only younger age and higher proteinuria were predictive for chronic kidney disease progression (p=0.00002). 6% of pts in the diabetic group had SBP below 140, 19% between 140 and 160, and 75% above 160 mmHg. Diastolic blood pressure below 80 had only 6% of patients, between 80 and 90 had 37% and above 90 mmHg had 57%. Pulse pressure below 80 mmHg had 55% and it was correlated positively with age, p=0.009. Progression of chronic kidney disease in the diabetic group correlated positively with mean arterial pressure, systolic blood pressure and proteinuria, (p=0.017, 0.036 and 0.000000 respectively) and inversely with age (p=0.0003). Multiple regression analysis showed that proteinuria, age and SBP were the only predictors for chronic kidney disease progression in diabetics.

CONCLUSION

Isolated systolic hypertension predominates the older age groups, proteinuria and age significantly correlate with GFR decline in both groups, and SBP is associated with more rapid progression of CKD in the diabetic patients.

Inflammation and anaemia as predictors of cardiovascular mortality in hemodialysis patients

BACKGROUND

Cardiovascular diseases are the most common causes of death among hemodialysis (HD) patients, yet the risk factors for these events have not been well established. Our study objective was to determine predictors of cardiovascular mortality, considering the non-traditional/disease-related and treatment-related/ cardiovascular risk factor in HD patients.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Disease-related cardiovascular risk factors, such as anaemia, calcium-phosphate disorders, nutrition-inflammation and treatment/dialysis-related cardiovascular risk factors such as HD dose, using the index Kt/V were analyzed in 214 patients on HD. Mortality was monitored prospectively over a two year period.

RESULTS

Fifty-three of the 214 HD patients died during the follow-up period and the main cause of death was cardiovascular events (56.6%), followed by infection/sepsis (26.4%). The patients who died were significantly older than those alive, had significantly lower serum levels of hemoglobin (Hb), albumin and Kt/V. Serum levels of calcium, C-reactive protein (CRP) and fibrinogen were significantly higher in patients who died during the follow-up period. Kaplan-Meier analysis showed that the all cause and cardiovascular mortality was considerably higher in patients with Hb<110 g/l, albumin <40 g/l, CRP>8 mg/l and spKt/V<1.2 (log rank, p=0.000/p=0.000, p=0.000/ p=0.001, p=0.000/p=0.000, p=0.000/p=0.000), respectively. No difference in cardiovascular mortality was observed between the fibrinogen <4 g/l> levels. High CRP, low Hb levels and low spKt/V were significant predictors of all-cause mortality, but low albumin and high fibrinogen levels were not in the Cox proportional hazards analysis. When only cardiovascular mortality was entered into the Cox model, high CRP and low Hb levels were the only significant predictors for mortality.

CONCLUSIONS

It can be concluded that, inflammation (elevated CRP) and anaemia (decreased Hb), were identified as significant independent non-traditional, disease-related cardiovascular risk factors that predict cardiovascular mortality in HD patients.

First two ABO-incompatible living renal transplantations using splenectomy, rituximab, plasmapheresis and IVIG as a preconditioning regimen: a single center experience in the Balkans

BACKGROUND

Due to the growing organ shortage in the Balkans and still underdeveloped cadaver transplantation, we started accepting living expanded criteria renal donors including elderly, marginal and unrelated donors (spouses, etc). The ABO-incompatible renal transplantation was initiated last year. The first two successful cases are presented.

METHODS

A 40-yr-old mother (blood group A1B) and a 57-yr-old husband (blood group B) were considered as suitable donors for an 18-yr-old daughter (blood group B) and a 52-yr-old wife (blood group O). Both the recipients had a relatively long dialysis treatment before the surgery. The anti-A1 and anti-B titer of isoaglutinins was 1 : 64 in both the recipients before the procedure. A routine laparoscopic splenectomy was performed 40 and 45 days before the transplantation, without any complications. In the 10 days pre-conditioning period, rituximab was administered in a single dose of 375 mg/m2. At the same time four to five plasmaphereses were performed to reduce the isoaglutinins to below 1 : 4. On the last night before the surgery intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) in a dose of 0.5 g/kg/bw was administered. Standard induction and maintenance therapy was introduced (Dacllizumab, CyA-Neoral, MMF and steroids) according to the accepted policy in our transplant center. The routine plasmaphereses were performed in the first 2 weeks after transplantation to keep the isoaglutinins titer below 1 : 8.

RESULTS

Ten and 6 months after the surgery both recipients are doing well. Their graft function remains stable (actual serum creatinin 140 and 230 microm/L, respectively). In the 1 month protocol biopsy a subclinical cellular and mild vascular rejection occurred, and both recipients were treated by steroid pulse therapy. One to two additional plasmaphereses were performed. The regularly monitored anti-A1 and anti-B isoaglutinins titer was kept below 1 : 8 during a period of follow-up.

CONCLUSION

The first short-term results fully justify the ABO-incompatible living renal transplantation. The authors consider ABO-incompatible transplantation as a safe and promising procedure which may, together with expanded criteria living donors, ameliorate the actual donor shortage in the region.

Chronic allograft nephropathy (CAN) in early renal protocol biopsies: does treatment of borderline and subclinical acute rejections prevent development and progression of CAN?

Histological markers of chronic allograft nephropathy (CAN) in early protocol biopsies may ultimately result in deterioration of graft function. The aim of our study was to evaluate risk factors of early CAN histology and to determine whether treatment of borderline and subclinical acute rejections (BR/SAR) at 1-month posttransplant, prevents development and/or progression of CAN at 6-month biopsy. Thirty-five paired kidney allograft biopsies at 1 and 6 months after transplantation were blindly reviewed using Banff'97 criteria. The mean CAN score (sum of histological markers for chronicity) increased significantly at 6-month biopsy (1.83 +/- 1.46 vs 4.66 +/- 2.35; p < 0.01). No CAN was present in 27/70 biopsies (38.6%), 71.4% showed progression and 28.6% were with stable CAN at 6-month biopsy. When compared according to the progression, mean histological index (HI) score (sum of acute/chronic changes) in progressed CAN group (pCAN) increased significantly at 6-month biopsy (5.0 +/- 3.0 vs 9.5 +/- 2.8; p < 0.001). At 1-month biopsy, BR/SAR were found in 68% and 70%, in the pCAN and stable (sCAN) groups, respectively. The percentage of treated BR/SAR in sCAN group was significantly higher (57.1 vs 23.5%; p < 0.05), and the score of acute histological lesions lower (1.08 +/- 0.95 vs 0.35 +/- 0.66; p < 0.01) at 6-month biopsy. In conclusion, 1-month protocol biopsy may be valuable to uncover BR/SAR and the presence of early CAN in stable renal allografts. Progression of CAN at 6-month biopsy in our study was found to be associated with a greater number of untreated BR/SAR at 1-month biopsy. This observation may have important implications in the design of clinical trials aimed to prevent the progression of CAN.

Recurrent glomerulonephritis in living kidney transplantation

Glomerulonephritis (GN) is one of the most frequent causes of end-stage renal disease. Recurrent GN can occur very early after transplantation in up to 20% of renal-allograft recipients and should be considered with late graft dysfunction in 2-5%. Importantly, diagnosis of a clinically silent recurrence of the disease will pass undetected unless transplant centers have a policy of protocol biopsies. In addition, the classification of the type of recurrent GN should be done with data on electron microscopy and immunofluorescence, in order to promote prompt treatment and a strategy for long-term graft survival. The aim of our paper was to present a few typical cases of recurrent GN, showing the actuality of the problem in living related kidney transplant recipients and to ascertain the importance of precise and timely diagnosis by protocol biopsy. Recurrent focal segmental glomerular sclerosis (FSGS) in childhood is associated with the highest number of graft loss. The treatment of recurrent FSGN is difficult, so prophylactic plasmapheresis prior to transplantation appeared to be more effective in preventing recurrence than plasmapheresis after transplantation, especially in population of children. Mesangio proliferative GN type II is the second most frequent recurrent GN, followed by type I. Here, it is of paramount importance to classify the type of the disease. The family of the patient at risk for recurrent GN, a candidate for living related kidney transplantation, should be informed for the expected outcome and their voluntary decision whether to proceed with transplantation should be awaited.

Living-unrelated (paid) renal transplantation--ten years later

Due to the increase of organ shortage and still inadequate development of cadaver transplantation, many end-stage patients from the Balkan region travel mostly to India to buy a kidney. Despite all the ethical dilemmas and discussions, organ sales is present nowdays in Third-World countries. Sixteen patients (13 from Macedonia and 3 from Kosovo, SCG) were observed clinically during a period of 10 years. Recipients of mean age 36.5 years (range 10 to 58) displayed the following underlying diseases: chronic glomerulonephritis (n = 5), urethral valves with reflux (n = 2), ADPKD (n = 1), hypertensive nephropathy (n = 4), lithiasis (n = 1), and unknown cause of ESRD (n = 3). The donor population was young (22 to 29 years). Most patient records did not include data on HLA, cross-match, MLC, kind of surgery, or usual pretransplant workup. The immunosuppressive protocol included CyA, PRED, and AZA or MMF. All transplanted patients were followed on an outpatient basis in our department; patients with complications were hospitalized. The 1, 3, 5, and 10 year Kaplan Meier graft survival rates were 78.6%, 50.2%, 33.3%, and 18.8%, respectively. Seven patients were lost (43.7%), two during the first month after transplantation, two at the end of the first year, and three at 5, 6, and 8 years thereafter. The main reasons for death were severe pulmonary infections with sepsis, hepatitis B with liver cirrhosis, Kala Azar, CMV, and cancer of the colon. Five grafts were lost due to repeated rejection episodes and chronic graft nephropathy. The last three cases remained with good renal function and actual serum creatinine values of 135 +/- 9. In view of this experience, the authors cannot recommend this type of transplantation, not only from the ethical point of view, but also from frequent medical and surgical complications which are sometimes life threatening.

The evolution of untreated borderline and subclinical rejections at first month kidney allograft biopsy in comparison with histological changes at 6 months protocol biopsies

Our study sought to identify the possible implications of histological findings of borderline and subclinical rejections as well as histological markers of chronic allograft nephropathy (CAN) in protocol biopsies at 1 and 6 months after living-related kidney transplantation. Twenty-eight paired allograft biopsies were blindly reviewed using Banff '97 criteria, among which only 10.7% (6/56) showed no histopathological lesions. BR was found in 9/28 (32.1%) and 6/28 (21.4%), and SR in 3/28 (10.7%) and 10/28 (35.7%) of the patients, in the 1 and 6 month biopsies, respectively. The mean CAN score (sum of histological markers for chronicity) increased significantly at 6 months biopsy, 1.57 +/- 1.36 vs. 4.36 +/- 2.32 (p < 0.01). When compared according to chronicity index (CI < 5 >), the high CI group had a mean CAN score of 2.36 +/- 1.15 at 1 month, which increased to 5.14 +/- 1.99 at 6 months biopsy (188.9%). The proportion of these changes in low CI group were also increased from 0.79 +/- 1.12 to 3.57 +/- 2.38 (451.9%). In conclusion, a protocol 1 month biopsy may uncover a high prevalence of BR or SR in stable allografts. The presence of an untreated BR or SR in biopsies with low chronicity index showed greater susceptibility to histological deterioration on the 6 month biopsy, associated with rapid impairment of graft function and chronic allograft nephropathy.

Protocol Biopsies in Kidney Transplant Recipients: Histologic Findings as Prognostic Markers for Graft Function and Outcome

The aim of the present study was to identify subclinical and borderline rejections as well as histological markers of chronic allograft nephropathy (CAN) among protocol biopsies performed at 1 and 6 months after living related kidney transplantation to assess their possible implications for graft function. Twenty paired allograft biopsies performed at 1 and 6 months were reviewed according to the Banff scoring scheme. The mean ages of donors and recipients were 59.6 +/- 13.8 and 34.4 +/- 8.7 years, respectively. Among all biopsies only 10% (4/40) showed no histopathological lesions. At the first month borderline rejection was shown in 35% and subclinical rejection in 10% of patients. At 6 months the proportion of findings was even higher, namely, 40% and 30%, respectively. When divided according to donor age, donors above 55 years showed a mean CAN score of 2.33 +/- 1.56 which increased to 5.0 +/- 2.26 on the 6 month biopsy (214.3%). Unexpectedly, the proportion of these changes in the younger donor group also increased by 173.3%, which might have been explained by the greater number of borderline and subclinical rejections in the younger donor group at the 1 month biopsy. In conclusion, 1 month biopsy may be valuable to determine borderline and subclinical rejection and to prognosticate the outcome of renal allograft function. Our findings suggest a greater susceptibility of histological deterioration among the older donor population. However, the presence of an untreated rejection in the younger donor pool leads to a rapid impairment of the graft function accelerating the process of chronic allograft nephropathy.

Short-term effect of folic acid supplementation in renal transplant recipients and chronic kidney disease patients with comparable renal function impairment

Recent evidence suggested that the efficacy of folic acid supplementation in reducing plasma total homocysteine (Hcy) concentration might be similar in renal transplant recipients (RTR) and chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients with a comparable degree of reduction of renal function. However, a direct comparison of the response to high dose folic acid supplementation between renal transplant recipients and CKD patients has never been made. Therefore, the goal of this study was to evaluate the response to folic acid (5 mg/day) supplementation in 15 stable renal transplant recipients with evidence of chronic allograft nephropathy, and in 15 CKD (stage 3) patients matched for age, sex and renal function living in the area of Skopje, Macedonia. After 12 weeks of folic acid supplementation, plasma total Hcy concentrations were significantly reduced in the two groups. Percent reduction of plasma total Hcy levels was nearly identical in the two groups (25.7% vs 24.5%, p = NS). These results confirm previous findings regarding the efficacy of folic acid therapy given separately to either renal transplant recipients or CKD patients, and extend them to a direct confirmation of identical efficacy.

Living emotionally related renal transplantation (LERT)--single center experience in the Balkans

BACKGROUND

As elsewhere, the growing organ shortage is a main problem for organ transplantation. To solve the problem, we started accepting genetically unrelated, but emotionally related living donors.

METHODS

In the period of 1998-2002, 14 LERT are performed in the University Clinical Centre in Skopje, Republic of Macedonia. As suitable donors are used predominantly spouses, but also mother and brother in law. The immunosuppression included a quadruple protocol with Interleukin-2R antagonists, late cyclosporin A, MMF and steroids. The two-year graft and patients survival of LERT was compared with 22 living genetically related donor transplantation (LRT) performed in the same time.

RESULTS

The two years graft survival was 100% in LERT and 92% in LRT. There are not any significant difference among the medical and surgical complications between the two groups of pts. The actual serum creatinin was 101+22 in LERT compared with 142+34 in LRT.

CONCLUSION

The authors recommend the LERT as a valid alternative especially in the countries where the regular cadaver transplantation is not yet established.

Spectrum of renal bone disease in end-stage renal failure patients not yet on dialysis

BACKGROUND

During the last few years the spectrum of renal osteodystrophy (ROD) in dialysis patients has been studied thoroughly and the prevalence of the various types of ROD has changed considerably. Whereas until a decade ago most patients presented with secondary hyperparathyroidism (HPTH), adynamic bone (ABD) has become the most common lesion within the dialysis population over the last few years. Much less is known about the spectrum of ROD in end-stage renal failure (ESRF) patients not yet on dialysis.

METHODS

Transiliac bone biopsies were taken in an unselected group of 84 ESRF patients (44 male, age 54+/-12 years) before enrolment in a dialysis programme. All patients were recruited within a time period of 10 months from various centres (n=18) in Macedonia. Calcium carbonate was the only prescribed medication in patients followed up by the outpatient clinic.

RESULTS

HPTH was found in only 9% of the patients, whilst ABD appeared to be the most frequent renal bone disease as it was observed in 23% of the cases next to normal bone (38%). A relatively high number of patients (n=10; 12%) fulfilled the criteria of osteomalacia (OM). Mixed osteodystrophy (MX) was diagnosed in 18% of the subjects. There was no significant difference between groups in age, creatinine, or serum and bone strontium and aluminium levels. Patient characteristics associated with ABD included male gender and diabetes, whilst OM was associated with older age (>58 years).

CONCLUSIONS

In an unselected population of ESRF patients already, 62% of them have an abnormal bone histology. ABD is the most prevalent type of ROD in this population. In the absence of aluminium or strontium accumulation the relatively high prevalence of a low bone turnover as expressed by either normal bone or ABD and OM is striking.

Living related renal transplantation--the use of advanced age donors

AIM

Efforts to increase the donor pool and available organs included some unconventional kidney transplantation. One of these was including elderly donors for both, living and cadaver kidney transplantation. The aim of the study was to review our single centre experience with living donor transplants from elderly advanced age donors.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

During a period of 7 years, 71 living related renal transplantations were performed. Twenty-six of them were over 65 (mean 69+/-4, range 65 to 81), but 10 were over 70 years of age. The survival rate was compared with 45 transplants from younger donors (mean age 51+/-6, range 24 to 59). The cold and warm ischemia time, the preservation procedure and blood vessels anastomosis time were comparable in both donor groups. The immunosuppression included sequental quadruple protocol with ATG, PRED, AZA and CyA replacing ATG after 7 days. The triple drug (AZA, PRED, CyA) maintenance therapy was applied to all recipients.

RESULTS

Kaplan-Meier 1-, 3- and 5-year graft survival was 88.0%, 79.2% and 68%, respectively, for advanced donor age group and 90.2%, 82.4% and 74%, respectively, for younger donor group. The difference was slightly statistically significant (p < 0.05). In 6 patients who received graft from elderly donors, a delayed graft function was observed, whereas only in one in the younger donor group.

CONCLUSION

Despite the worse results in the elderly donors' transplants, we consider the advanced age donors as an important source of kidneys contributing to solving the actual organ shortage, especially in our region.

[Mono- and oligoclonal immunoglobulin anomalies in kidney transplant patients]

Serum from 115 HIV negative renal transplant recipients having more than 6 months follow-up was tested for the presence of mono- or oligoclonal immunoglobulins (moIg) by immunoelectrophoresis or immunofixation. Mono/oligoclonal gammapathy was detected in 16 patients (13.9%). Eight of these patients had only one monoclonal band, whereas the other eight had two or more bands. Thirteen of the 16 patients (81.3%) were IgG kappa positive, nine (56.3%) were IgG lambda positive, four (25.0%) were IgM lambda positive and only one (6.3%) was IgM kappa positive. Six monoclonal patients (37.5%) were IgG kappa positive and two monoclonal patients (12.5%) were IgG lambda positive. The oligoclonal combination IgG kappa lambda was present in three patients (18.8%), the combination IgG lambda + IgM lambda was present in two patients (12.5%) and IgG lambda + IgM lambda was present in one patient. The triple combination IgM kappa lambda + IgG kappa lambda and IgM lambda + IgG kappa lambda was found in two patients (12.5%). Ninety percent of these moIg did not exceed 2 g/L. MoIg appeared between 1 and 28 months after the kidney transplantation (mean value: 8.5 5.9 months) but were often transient, disappearing within 1 to 19 months in 13 patients (81.3%). Nine of the 16 cases (56.3%) disappeared before the end of the first year after detection. Risk factors for the appearance of these immunoglobulins have been identified as: the patient's age, the duration of haemodialysis, the occurrence of prior (anti-cytomegalovirus [CMV]) infection, and therapy with cyclosporin A (CsA). The persistence of monoclonal gammapathy was associated with acute or reactivated Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection and inability to convert IgM to IgG CMV antibodies. Furthermore, no association was established with previous hepatitis B or C infection or the number of rejection episodes. Kaposi's sarcoma was found in one patient (6.3%) but had no correlation with the presence of moIg. We recommend careful follow up of renal transplant patients in whom moIg have been discovered.