Type and Timing of Rehabilitation Following Acute and Subacute Spinal Cord Injury: A Systematic Review

OBJECTIVES

The objective of this study was to conduct a systematic review of the literature to address the following clinical questions: In adult patients with acute and subacute complete or incomplete traumatic SCI, (1) does the time interval between injury and commencing rehabilitation affect outcome?; (2) what is the comparative effectiveness of different rehabilitation strategies, including different intensities and durations of treatment?; (3) are there patient or injury characteristics that affect the efficacy of rehabilitation?; and (4) what is the cost-effectiveness of various rehabilitation strategies?

METHODS

A systematic search was conducted for literature published through March 31, 2015 that evaluated rehabilitation strategies in adults with acute or subacute traumatic SCI at any level. Studies were critically appraised individually and the overall strength of evidence was evaluated using methods proposed by the GRADE (Grades of Recommendation Assessment, Development and Evaluation) working group.

RESULTS

The search strategy yielded 384 articles, 19 of which met our inclusion criteria. Based on our results, there was no difference between body weight-supported treadmill training and conventional rehabilitation with respect to improvements in Functional Independence Measure (FIM) Locomotor score, Lower Extremity Motor Scores, the distance walked in 6 minutes or gait velocity over 15.2 m. Functional electrical therapy resulted in slightly better FIM Motor, FIM Self-Care, and Spinal Cord Independence Measure Self-Care subscores compared with conventional occupational therapy. Comparisons using the Toronto Rehabilitation Institute Hand Function Test demonstrated no differences between groups in 7 of 9 domains. There were no clinically important differences in Maximal Lean Test, Maximal Sidewards Reach Test, T-shirt Test, or the Canadian Occupational Performance Measure between unsupported sitting training and standard in-patient rehabilitation.

CONCLUSION

The current evidence base for rehabilitation following acute and subacute spinal cord injury is limited. Methodological challenges have contributed to this and further research is still needed.

A Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Patients With Acute Spinal Cord Injury: Recommendations on the Role of Baseline Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Clinical Decision Making and Outcome Prediction

INTRODUCTION

The objective of this guideline is to outline the role of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in clinical decision making and outcome prediction in patients with traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI).

METHODS

A systematic review of the literature was conducted to address key questions related to the use of MRI in patients with traumatic SCI. This review focused on longitudinal studies that controlled for baseline neurologic status. A multidisciplinary Guideline Development Group (GDG) used this information, their clinical expertise, and patient input to develop recommendations on the use of MRI for SCI patients. Based on GRADE (Grading of Recommendation, Assessment, Development and Evaluation), a strong recommendation is worded as "we recommend," whereas a weaker recommendation is indicated by "we suggest."

RESULTS

Based on the limited available evidence and the clinical expertise of the GDG, our recommendations were: (1) "We suggest that MRI be performed in adult patients with acute SCI prior to surgical intervention, when feasible, to facilitate improved clinical decision-making" (quality of evidence, very low) and (2) "We suggest that MRI should be performed in adult patients in the acute period following SCI, before or after surgical intervention, to improve prediction of neurologic outcome" (quality of evidence, low).

CONCLUSIONS

These guidelines should be implemented into clinical practice to improve outcomes and prognostication for patients with SCI.

Patterns of Sacral Sparing Components on Neurologic Recovery in Newly Injured Persons With Traumatic Spinal Cord Injury

OBJECTIVE

To assess the patterns of sacral sparing and recovery in newly injured persons with traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI).

DESIGN

Retrospective analysis of data from the national Spinal Cord Injury Model Systems (SCIMS) database for patients enrolled from January 2011 to February 2015.

SETTING

SCIMS centers.

PARTICIPANTS

Individuals (N=1738; age ≥16y) with traumatic SCI admitted to rehabilitation within 30 days after injury with follow-up at discharge, at 1 year, or both.

INTERVENTIONS

Not applicable.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

International Standards for Neurological Classification of Spinal Cord Injury examination results at admission and follow-up (discharge or 1y, or both).

RESULTS

Conversion from an initial American Spinal Injury Association Impairment Scale (AIS) grade A to incomplete status was 20% at rehabilitation discharge and 27.8% at 1 year, and was greater in cervical and low paraplegia levels (T10 and below) than in high paraplegia level injuries (T1-9). Conversion from AIS B to motor incomplete was 33.9% at discharge and 53.6% at 1 year, and the initial sparing of all sacral sensory components was correlated with the greatest conversion to motor incomplete status at discharge and at 1 year. For patients with initial AIS C, the presence of voluntary anal contraction (VAC) in association with other sacral sparing was most frequently observed to improve to AIS D status at discharge. However, the presence of VAC alone as the initial sacral sparing component had the poorest prognosis for recovery to AIS D status. At follow-up, regaining sacral sparing components correlated with improvement in conversion for patients with initial AIS B and C.

CONCLUSIONS

The components of initial and follow-up sacral sparing indicated differential patterns of neurologic outcome in persons with traumatic SCI. The more sacral components initially spared, the greater the potential for recovery; and the more sacral components gained, the greater the chance of motor recovery. Consideration of whether VAC should remain a diagnostic criterion sufficient for motor incomplete classification in the absence of other qualifying sublesional motor sparing is recommended.

Development and validation of a computerized algorithm for International Standards for Neurological Classification of Spinal Cord Injury (ISNCSCI)

STUDY DESIGN

Validation study.

OBJECTIVES

To describe the development and validation of a computerized application of the international standards for neurological classification of spinal cord injury (ISNCSCI).

SETTING

Data from acute and rehabilitation care.

METHODS

The Rick Hansen Institute-ISNCSCI Algorithm (RHI-ISNCSCI Algorithm) was developed based on the 2011 version of the ISNCSCI and the 2013 version of the worksheet. International experts developed the design and logic with a focus on usability and features to standardize the correct classification of challenging cases. A five-phased process was used to develop and validate the algorithm. Discrepancies between the clinician-derived and algorithm-calculated results were reconciled.

RESULTS

Phase one of the validation used 48 cases to develop the logic. Phase three used these and 15 additional cases for further logic development to classify cases with 'Not testable' values. For logic testing in phases two and four, 351 and 1998 cases from the Rick Hansen SCI Registry (RHSCIR), respectively, were used. Of 23 and 286 discrepant cases identified in phases two and four, 2 and 6 cases resulted in changes to the algorithm. Cross-validation of the algorithm in phase five using 108 new RHSCIR cases did not identify the need for any further changes, as all discrepancies were due to clinician errors. The web-based application and the algorithm code are freely available at www.isncscialgorithm.com.

CONCLUSION

The RHI-ISNCSCI Algorithm provides a standardized method to accurately derive the level and severity of SCI from the raw data of the ISNCSCI examination. The web interface assists in maximizing usability while minimizing the impact of human error in classifying SCI.

SPONSORSHIP

This study is sponsored by the Rick Hansen Institute and supported by funding from Health Canada and Western Economic Diversification Canada.

Neurological and functional recovery after thoracic spinal cord injury

OBJECTIVE

To describe neurological and functional outcomes after traumatic paraplegia.

DESIGN

Retrospective analysis of longitudinal database.

SETTING

Spinal Cord Injury Model Systems.

PARTICIPANTS

Six hundred sixty-one subjects enrolled in the Spinal Cord Injury Model Systems database, injured between 2000 and 2011, with initial neurological level of injury from T2-12. Two hundred sixty-five subjects had second neurological exams and 400 subjects had Functional Independence Measure (FIM) scores ≥6 months after injury.

OUTCOME MEASURES

American Spinal Injury Association Impairment Scale (AIS) grade, sensory level (SL), lower extremity motor scores (LEMS), and FIM.

RESULTS

At baseline, 73% of subjects were AIS A, and among them, 15.5% converted to motor incomplete. The mean SL increase for subjects with an AIS A grade was 0.33 ± 0.21; 86% remained within two levels of baseline. Subjects with low thoracic paraplegia (T10-12) demonstrated greater LEMS gain than high paraplegia (T2-9), and also had higher 1-year FIM scores, which had not been noted in earlier reports. Better FIM scores were also correlated with better AIS grades, younger age and increase in AIS grade. Ability to walk at 1 year was associated with low thoracic injury, higher initial LEMS, incomplete injury and increase in AIS grade.

CONCLUSION

Little neurological recovery is seen in persons with complete thoracic SCI, especially with levels above T10. Persons who are older at the time of injury have poorer functional recovery than younger persons. Conversion to a better AIS grade is associated with improvement in self-care and mobility at 1 year.

Musculoskeletal Effects of 2 Functional Electrical Stimulation Cycling Paradigms Conducted at Different Cadences for People With Spinal Cord Injury: A Pilot Study

OBJECTIVE

To compare the musculoskeletal effects of low cadence cycling with functional electrical stimulation (FES) with high cadence FES cycling for people with spinal cord injury (SCI).

DESIGN

Randomized pre-post design.

SETTING

Outpatient rehabilitation clinic.

PARTICIPANTS

Participants (N=17; 14 men, 3 women; age range, 22-67y) with C4-T6 motor complete chronic SCI were randomized to low cadence cycling (n=9) or high cadence cycling (n=8).

INTERVENTIONS

Low cadence cycling at 20 revolutions per minute (RPM) and high cadence cycling at 50 RPM 3 times per week for 6 months. Cycling torque (resistance per pedal rotation) increased if targeted cycling cadence was maintained.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry was used to assess distal femur areal bone mineral density, magnetic resonance imaging was used to assess to assess trabecular bone microarchitecture and cortical bone macroarchitecture and thigh muscle volume, and biochemical markers were used to assess bone turnover. It was hypothesized that subjects using low cadence cycling would cycle with greater torque and therefore show greater musculoskeletal improvements than subjects using high cadence cycling.

RESULTS

A total of 15 participants completed the study. Low cadence cycling obtained a maximal average torque of 2.9±2.8Nm, and high cadence cycling obtained a maximal average torque of 0.8±0.2Nm. Low cadence cycling showed greater decreases in bone-specific alkaline phosphatase, indicating less bone formation (15.5% decrease for low cadence cycling, 10.7% increase for high cadence cycling). N-telopeptide decreased 34% following low cadence cycling, indicating decreased resorption. Both groups increased muscle volume (low cadence cycling by 19%, high cadence cycling by 10%). Low cadence cycling resulted in a nonsignificant 7% increase in apparent trabecular number (P=.08) and 6% decrease in apparent trabecular separation (P=.08) in the distal femur, whereas high cadence cycling resulted in a nonsignificant (P>.3) 2% decrease and 3% increase, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

This study suggests that the greater torque achieved with low cadence cycling may result in improved bone health because of decreased bone turnover and improved trabecular bone microarchitecture. Longer-term outcome studies are warranted to identify the effect on fracture risk.

Cycling with Functional Electrical Stimulation Before and After a Distal Femur Fracture in a Man with Paraplegia

CASE PRESENTATION

A man with chronic paraplegia sustained a distal femur fracture following an unrelated fall while enrolled in a study examining musculoskeletal changes after 6 months of cycling with functional electrical stimulation (FES). After healing, he restarted and completed the study.

MANAGEMENT AND OUTCOME

Study measures included areal bone mineral density, trabecular bone microarchitecture, cortical bone macroarchitecture, serum bone formation/resorption markers, and muscle volume. The patient made small gains in bone- and muscle-related measures. Bone markers had not returned to baseline prior to restarting cycling, which may have impacted results.

DISCUSSION

This case shows that cycling with FES may be safely resumed after distal femur fracture.

Can anatomic level of injury on MRI predict neurological level in acute cervical spinal cord injury?

BACKGROUND

Determining neurological level of injury (NLI) is of paramount importance after spinal cord injury (SCI), although its accuracy depends upon the reliability of the neurologic examination. Here, we determine if anatomic location of cervical cord injury by MRI (MRI level of injury) can predict NLI in the acute traumatic setting.

METHODS

A retrospective review was undertaken of SCI patients with macroscopic evidence of cervical cord injury from non-penetrating trauma, all of whom had undergone cervical spine MRI and complete neurologic testing. The recorded MRI information included cord lesion type (intra-axial edema, hemorrhage) and MRI locations of upper and lower lesion boundary, as well as lesion epicenter. Pearson correlation and Bland-Altman analyses were used to assess the relationship between MRI levels of injury and NLI.

RESULTS

All five MRI parameters, namely (1) upper and (2) lower boundaries of cord edema, (3) lesion epicenter, and (4) upper and (5) lower boundaries of cord hemorrhage demonstrated statistically significant, positive correlations with NLI. The MRI locations of upper and lower boundary of hemorrhage were found to have the strongest correlation with NLI (r = 0.72 and 0.61, respectively; p < 0.01). A weaker (low to moderate) correlation existed between lower boundary of cord edema and NLI (r = 0.30; p < 0.01). Upper boundary of cord hemorrhage on MRI demonstrated the best agreement with NLI (mean difference 0.03 ± 0.73; p < 0.01) by Bland-Altman analysis.

CONCLUSIONS

MRI level of injury has the potential to serve as a surrogate for NLI in instances where the neurologic examination is either unavailable or unreliable.

Reliability and validity of the capabilities of upper extremity test (CUE-T) in subjects with chronic spinal cord injury

OBJECTIVE

To determine the reliability and validity of the capabilities of upper extremity test (CUE-T), a measure of functional limitations, in patients with chronic tetraplegia.

DESIGN

Repeated measures.

SETTING

Outpatient rehabilitation center.

PARTICIPANTS

Fifty subjects (36 male/14 female) with spinal cord injury (SCI) of ≥1-year duration participated. Subjects were 17-81 years old (mean 48.1 ± 18.2); neurological levels ranged from C2 through T6, American Spinal Injury Association Impairment Scale grades A-D.

INTERVENTIONS

Not applicable.

OUTCOME MEASURES

Intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC), weighted kappa and repeatability values for CUE-T; Spearman correlations of CUE-T with upper extremity motor scores (UEMS), and self-care and mobility portions of the Spinal Cord Independence Measure, vIII (SCIM III).

RESULTS

Score ranges for UEMS were 8-50, CUE-T 7-135, self-care SCIM 0-20, and mobility SCIM 0-40. The ICC values for total, right, and left side scores were excellent (0.97-0.98; 95% confidence interval 0.96-0.99). Item weighted kappa values were ≥0.60 for all but five items, four of which were right and left pronation and supination. Repeatability of total score was 10.8 points, right and left sides 6.3 and 6.1 points. Spearman correlations of the total CUE-T with the UEMS and SCIM self-care and mobility scores were 0.83, 0.70, and 0.55 respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

The CUE-T displays excellent test-retest reliability, and good-excellent correlation with impairment and capacity measures in persons with chronic SCI. After revising pronation and supination test procedures, the sensitivity to change should be determined.

Clinical diagnosis and prognosis following spinal cord injury

Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a sudden, life-altering event. Injury severity and accompanying recovery vary considerably from individual to individual. The most important determinant of prognosis is whether an injury is clinically complete or incomplete. While approximately 10-20% of complete injuries convert to incomplete during the first year post-injury, the magnitude of motor recovery following complete SCI is limited or absent. Robust functional motor recovery (e.g., weight-bearing, ambulation) distal to the zone of injury is rare. Recovery following incomplete SCI is particularly variable, and anywhere from 20% to 75% of individuals will recover some degree of walking capacity by 1 year post-injury. This is related to presenting injury severity (American Spinal Injury Association Impairment Scale grade); however, even 20-50% of individuals who present as motor complete, sensory incomplete will walk in some capacity by 1 year post-injury. Regardless, for both complete and incomplete injuries, the majority of recovery is observed during the initial 9-12 months, with a relative plateau reached by 12-18 months post-injury. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) provides valuable adjunct information when a bedside clinical assessment cannot be completed. The presence of intramedullary hemorrhage and extended segments of edema have been associated with clinically complete SCI.

Consumer preference in ranking walking function utilizing the walking index for spinal cord injury II

STUDY DESIGN

Blinded rank ordering.

OBJECTIVE

To determine consumer preference in walking function utilizing the walking Index for spinal cord injury II (WISCI II) in individuals with spinal cord injury (SCI)from the Canada, the Italy and the United States of America.

METHOD

In all, 42 consumers with incomplete SCI (25 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar) from Canada (12/42), Italy (14/42) and the United States of America (16/42) ranked the 20 levels of the WISCI II scale by their individual preference for walking. Subjects were blinded to the original ranking of the WISCI II scale by clinical scientists. Photographs of each WISCI II level used in a previous pilot study were randomly shuffled and rank ordered. Percentile, conjoint/cluster and graphic analyses were performed.

RESULTS

All three analyses illustrated consumer ranking followed a bimodal distribution. Ranking for two levels with physical assistance and two levels with a walker were bimodal with a difference of five to six ranks between consumer subgroups (quartile analysis). The larger cluster (N=20) showed preference for walking with assistance over the smaller cluster (N=12), whose preference was walking without assistance and more devices. In all, 64% (27/42) of consumers ranked WISCI II level with no devices or braces and 1 person assistance higher than multiple levels of the WISCI II requiring no assistance. These results were unexpected, as the hypothesis was that consumers would rank independent walking higher than walking with assistance.

CONCLUSION

Consumer preference for walking function should be considered in addition to objective measures in designing SCI trials that use significant improvement in walking function as an outcome measure.

Upper- and lower-extremity motor recovery after traumatic cervical spinal cord injury: an update from the national spinal cord injury database

OBJECTIVE

To present upper- (UEMS) and lower-extremity motor score (LEMS) recovery, American Spinal Injury Association Impairment Scale (AIS) change, and motor level change in persons with traumatic tetraplegia from the Spinal Cord Injury Model Systems (SCIMS).

DESIGN

Longitudinal cohort; follow-up to 1 year.

SETTING

U.S. SCIMS.

PARTICIPANTS

Subjects (N=1436; age>15y) with tetraplegia with at least 2 examinations, the first within 7 days of injury. Subjects were 80% men injured by vehicular collisions (44%), falls (30%), sports (12%), and violence (11%).

INTERVENTIONS

Not applicable.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Change in AIS, UEMS, LEMS, and motor levels.

RESULTS

From a baseline of 7 days or less, 22% of subjects with AIS grade A converted to AIS grade B or better by rehabilitation discharge; and 30%, by 1 year, with 8% to AIS grade C and 7.1% to grade D. Conversion from complete to motor incomplete was not related to timing of the initial examination (P=.54) or initial neurologic level (P=.96). For AIS grade B, 34% remained motor complete, 30% became AIS grade C, and 37% became grade D by 1 year. Although 82.5% of those with AIS grade C improved to AIS grades D and E, mean 1-year UEMS score was only 35 points. UEMS scores in patients with AIS grade A increased a mean of 9 to 11 points, except for C1 to C3 and C8 to T1 motor levels (gain, 2-3 points). Motor level was unchanged or ascended in 35% and improved 1 level in 42%, 2 levels in 14%, and more than 2 levels in 9%. Motor zone of partial preservation of 2 segments or more was associated with gain of 2 or more motor levels, with a relative risk of 5.0 (95% confidence interval, 3.2-7.8; P<.001).

CONCLUSIONS

More patients with cervical complete spinal cord injury may be converting to AIS grade D compared with earlier reports. Motor level recovery in those with AIS grade A and UEMS recovery in those with AIS grade C injuries are potential outcomes for acute clinical trials.

The Reproducibility and Convergent Validity of the Walking Index for Spinal Cord Injury (WISCI) in Chronic Spinal Cord Injury

Background. The Walking Index for Spinal Cord Injury II (WISCI II) is a hierarchical scale that measures improvements in walking following spinal cord injury (SCI). The WISCI II has good face validity, concurrent validity, and reliability following acute SCI; however, psychometric properties need to be determined for chronic SCI. Because prior studies have demonstrated a relationship between lower-extremity motor scores (LEMS) and walking, outcome measures for walking should demonstrate a linkage between the underlying impairment (weakness) and walking—convergent validity. Objective. To determine convergent validity and reproducibility of the WISCI II. Methods. Self-selected and maximum WISCI levels were assessed for 76 patients with chronic SCI (34 paraplegia, 42 tetraplegia); 10-m walking speeds were calculated. Convergent validity was assessed by correlating WISCI II levels to LEMS and walking speed. Reproducibility was assessed with the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) and the smallest real difference (SRD). Results. Convergent validity of the self-selected and maximum WISCI II with LEMS was moderate for paraplegia (ρ = 0.479 and ρ = 0.533) and strong for tetraplegia (ρ = 0.852 and ρ = 0.816). Tetraplegia, but not paraplegia, demonstrated convergent validity of walking speed at the self-selected and maximum WISCI levels with LEMS (ρ = 0.752 and ρ = 0.813). WISCI reproducibility was excellent (self-selected ICC = 0.994; maximum ICC = 0.995), resulting in SRDs of 0.785 (self-selected) and 0.597 (maximum), suggesting that a change of one WISCI level can be interpreted as real in a chronic patient. Conclusions. Results suggest that the WISCI II should be a very useful outcome measure for detecting changes in walking function following chronic SCI.

Assessment of autonomic dysfunction following spinal cord injury: rationale for additions to International Standards for Neurological Assessment

We present a preliminary report of the discussion of the joint committee of the American Spinal Injury Association (ASIA) and the International Spinal Cord Society concerning the development of assessment criteria for general autonomic function testing following spinal cord injury (SCI). Elements of this report were presented at the 2005 annual meeting of the ASIA. To improve the evaluation of neurological function in individuals with SCI and therefore better assess the effects of therapeutic interventions in the future, we are proposing a comprehensive set of definitions of general autonomic nervous system dysfunction following SCI that should be assessed by clinicians. Presently the committee recommends the recognition and assessment of the following conditions: neurogenic shock, cardiac dysrhythmias, orthostatic hypotension, autonomic dysreflexia, temperature dysregulation, and hyperhidrosis.

Reliability and repeatability of the motor and sensory examination of the international standards for neurological classification of spinal cord injury

OBJECTIVE

To determine the reliability and repeatability of the motor and sensory examination of the International Standards for Classification of Spinal Cord Injury (SCI) in trained examiners.

PARTICIPANTS/METHODS

Sixteen examiners (8 physicians, 8 physical therapists) with clinical SCI experience and 16 patients participated in a reliability study in preparation for a clinical trial involving individuals with acute SCI. After a training session on the standards, each examiner evaluated 3 patients for motor, light touch (LT), and pin prick (PP). The following day, 15 examiners reevaluated one patient. Interrater reliability was determined using intraclass correlation coefficients (1-way, random effects model). Intrarater reliability was determined using a 2-way random effects model. Repeatability was determined using the method of Bland and Altman.

RESULTS

Patients were classified as complete tetraplegia (n = 5), incomplete tetraplegia (n = 5), complete paraplegia (n = 5), and incomplete paraplegia (n = 1). Overall, inter-rater reliability was high: motor = 0.97, LT = 0.96, PP = 0.88. Repeatability values were small in patients with complete SCI (motor < 2 points, sensory < 7 points) but large for patients with incomplete SCI. Intra-rater reliability values were > or = 0.98 for patients with complete SCI.

CONCLUSIONS

The summed scores for motor, LT, and PP in subjects with complete SCI have high inter-rater reliability and small repeatability values. These measures are appropriately reliable for use in clinical trials involving serial neurological examinations with multiple examiners. Further research in subjects with incomplete SCI is needed to determine whether repeatability is acceptably small.

Validity of the walking scale for spinal cord injury and other domains of function in a multicenter clinical trial

OBJECTIVE

To demonstrate criterion (concurrent and predictive) and construct validity of the Walking Index for Spinal Cord Injury (WISCI) scale and other walking measures in the Spinal Cord Injury Locomotor Trial (SCILT).

DESIGN

Prospective multicenter clinical trial of a walking intervention for patients with acute traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI). PARTICIPANTS/ METHODS: Body weight-supported treadmill training was compared to overground mobility training in 146 patients with incomplete SCI (C4 to L3) enrolled within 8 weeks of onset and treated for 12 weeks. Primary outcome measures were the Functional Independence Measure (FIM), 50-foot walking speed (50FW-S), and 6-minute walking distance (6MW-D), tested 3, 6, and 12 months after entry. Secondary measures were the Lower Extremity Motor Score (LEMS), Berg Balance Scale (BBS), WISCI, and FIM locomotor score (LFIM), assessed at 6 centers by blinded observers. Data for the 2 arms were combined since no significant differences in outcomes had been found.

RESULTS

Correlations with WISCI at 6 months were significant with BBS (r = .90), LEMS (r = .85), LFIM (r = .89), FIM (r = .77), 50FW-S (r = .85), and 6MW-D ( r = .79); similar correlations occurred at 3 and 12 months. Correlations of change scores from baseline WISCI were significant for change scores from baseline of LEMS/BBS/LFIM. Correlation of baseline LEMS and WISCI at 12 months were most significant (r = .73). The R(2) of baseline LEMS explained 57% of variability of WISCI levels at 3 months.

CONCLUSION

Concurrent validity of the WISCI scale was supported by significant correlations with all measures at 3, 6, and 12 months. Correlation of change scores supports predictive validity. The LEMS at baseline was the best predictor of the WISCI score at 12 months and explained most of the variance, which supported both predictive and construct validity. The combination of the LEMS, BBS, WISCI, 50FW-S, and LFIM appears to encompass adequate descriptors for outcomes of walking trials for incomplete SCI.

The assessment of walking capacity using the walking index for spinal cord injury: self-selected versus maximal levels

OBJECTIVES

To assess (1) the frequency and magnitude of differences between self-selected and maximal walking capacity following spinal cord injury (SCI) by using the Walking Index for Spinal Cord Injury (WISCI) and (2) how these levels differ in efficiency and velocity.

DESIGN

Prospective cohort.

SETTING

Academic medical center.

PARTICIPANTS

Fifty people with chronic incomplete SCI.

INTERVENTIONS

Not applicable.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Subjects ambulated at the level used in the community (self-selected WISCI) and the highest level possible (maximal WISCI). Velocity (in m/s), Physiological Cost Index (PCI), and Total Heart Beat Index (THBI) were calculated. Differences were compared using the paired t test (parametric) or Wilcoxon signed-rank test (nonparametric).

RESULTS

For 36 subjects, maximal WISCI was higher than self-selected WISCI; 21 subjects showed an increase of 3 levels or more. Ambulatory velocity was higher for self-selected WISCI compared with maximal WISCI (.68 m/s vs .56 m/s, P<.001). PCI and THBI at self-selected WISCI were lower than at maximal WISCI (PCI, 0.99 beats/m vs 1.48 beats/m, P<.001; THBI, 3.39 beats/m vs 4.75 beats/m, P<.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Many people with chronic SCI are capable of ambulating at multiple levels. For these people, ambulation at self-selected WISCI was more efficient as evidenced by greater velocity and decreased PCI and THBI. The findings have implications for assessing walking capacity within the context of clinical trials.

Domains of outcomes in spinal cord injury for clinical trials to improve neurological function

Selecting appropriate outcome measures in spinal cord injury clinical trials that aim to improve spinal cord function is a challenging task. Proving that an intervention has the intended effect on neurological functioning is insufficient. Any improvement must be shown to be clinically significant-that is, makes a change in the life of the person. Rehabilitation, which seeks to maximize function despite residual impairments, complicates this task. Small improvements in function due to a spinal cord intervention may be masked by improvements in function due to rehabilitation, particularly in the initial rehabilitation phase of care. Understanding outcome domains in models of disablement will facilitate selection or development of assessment tools appropriate for the trial in question. This article describes an expanded World Health Organization model of functioning that defines the domains of Impairment, Capability/Functional Limitation, and Activity, as well as the subdomains of Capacity and Performance, and gives examples of measurement instruments in use or under development in each domain.