JAM-A promotes neutrophil chemotaxis by controlling integrin internalization and recycling

The membrane-associated adhesion molecule JAM-A is required for neutrophil infiltration in inflammatory or ischemic tissues. JAM-A expressed in both endothelial cells and neutrophils has such a role, but the mechanism of action remains elusive. Here we show that JAM-A has a cell-autonomous role in neutrophil chemotaxis both in vivo and in vitro, which is independent of the interaction of neutrophils with endothelial cells. On activated neutrophils, JAM-A concentrates in a polarized fashion at the leading edge and uropod. Surprisingly, a significant amount of this protein is internalized in intracellular endosomal-like vesicles where it codistributes with integrin beta1. Clustering of beta1 integrin leads to JAM-A co-clustering, whereas clustering of JAM-A does not induce integrin association. Neutrophils derived from JAM-A-null mice are unable to correctly internalize beta1 integrins upon chemotactic stimuli and this causes impaired uropod retraction and cell motility. Consistently, inhibition of integrin internalization upon treatment with BAPTA-AM induces a comparable phenotype. These data indicate that JAM-A is required for the correct internalization and recycling of integrins during cell migration and might explain why, in its absence, the directional migration of neutrophils towards an inflammatory stimulus is markedly impaired.

Targeted inactivation of the COP9 signalosome impairs multiple stages of T cell development

Genetic programs promoting cell cycle progression, DNA repair, and survival are coordinately induced in developing T cells and require rapid turnover of effector molecules. As the COP9 signalosome (CSN) has been placed at the crossroads of these programs in lower organisms, we addressed its role by conditionally deleting CSN5/JAB1, its catalytic subunit, in developing thymocytes. CSN5/JAB1^del/del thymocytes show defective S phase progression and massive apoptosis at the double-negative (DN) 4–double-positive (DP) transition stage, which is paralleled by altered turnover of selected CSN-controlled substrates, including p53, IκB-α, and β-catenin. Combined dysregulation of the p53 and NF-κB pathways affects thymocyte survival by altering the mRNA and protein levels of selected Bcl-2 family members. Genetic complementation analysis performed on p53^−/−, Bcl-xL/Bcl-2A1, or T cell receptor transgenic backgrounds indicates that CSN5/JAB1 acts at distinct developmental stages to coordinate proliferation, survival, and positive selection of thymocytes by controlling the induction of defined genetic programs acting downstream of CSN-regulated transcription factors.

Pathophysiology of leukocyte-tissue interactions

Unlike most somatic cells, leukocytes are constitutively non-adherent. However, adhesive interactions are not only a required step in essentially all effector functions performed by leukocytes, but they also relay increasingly well-defined intracellular signals that affect the leukocyte as well as the surrounding tissues. Dissecting such signals in leukocytes has provided a wealth of information that contributes to our understanding of how adhesion controls higher-order biological responses, ranging from cell migration to proliferation, differentiation and survival.

LFA-1-dependent HuR nuclear export and cytokine mRNA stabilization in T cell activation

Lymphokine gene expression is a precisely regulated process in T cell-mediated immune responses. In this study we demonstrate that engagement of the beta(2) integrin LFA-1 in human peripheral T cells markedly extends the half-life of TNF-alpha, GM-CSF, and IL-3 mRNA, as well as a chimeric beta-globin mRNA reporter construct containing a strongly destabilizing class II AU-rich element from the GM-CSF mRNA 3'-untranslated region. This integrin-enhanced mRNA stability leads to augmented protein production, as determined by TNF-alpha ELISPOT assays. Furthermore, T cell stimulation by LFA-1 promotes rapid nuclear-to-cytoplasmic translocation of the mRNA-stabilizing protein HuR, which in turn is capable of binding an AU-rich element sequence in vitro. Abrogation of HuR function by use of inhibitory peptides, or marked reduction of HuR levels by RNA interference, prevents LFA-1 engagement-mediated stabilization of T cell TNF-alpha or IFN-gamma transcripts, respectively. Thus, HuR-mediated mRNA stabilization, stimulated by integrin engagement and controlled at the level of HuR nuclear export, is critically involved in T cell activation.

Dynamic partitioning into lipid rafts controls the endo-exocytic cycle of the alphaL/beta2 integrin, LFA-1, during leukocyte chemotaxis

Cell migration entails the dynamic redistribution of adhesion receptors from the cell rear toward the cell front, where they form new protrusions and adhesions. This process may involve regulated endo-exocytosis of integrins. Here we show that in primary neutrophils unengaged alphaL/beta2 integrin (LFA-1) is internalized and rapidly recycled upon chemoattractant stimulation via a clathrin-independent, cholesterol-sensitive pathway involving dynamic partitioning into detergent-resistant membranes (DRM). Persistent DRM association is required for recycling of the internalized receptor because 1) >90% of endocytosed LFA-1 is associated with DRM, and a large fraction of the internalized receptor colocalizes intracellularly with markers of DRM and the recycling endocytic compartment; 2) a recycling-defective mutant (alphaL/beta2Y735A) dissociates rapidly from DRM upon being endocytosed and is subsequently diverted into a late endosomal pathway; and 3) a dominant negative Rab11 mutant (Rab11S25N) induces intracellular accumulation of endocytosed alphaL/beta2 and prevents its enrichment in chemoattractant-induced lamellipodia. Notably, chemokine-induced migration of neutrophils over immobilized ICAM-1 is abrogated by cholesterol-sequestering agents. We propose that DRM-associated endocytosis allows efficient retrieval of integrins, as they detach from their ligands, followed by polarized recycling to areas of the plasma membrane, such as lamellipodia, where they establish new adhesive interactions and promote outside-in signaling events.

Synaptic clusters of MHC class II molecules induced on DCs by adhesion molecule-mediated initial T-cell scanning

Initial adhesive contacts between T lymphocytes and dendritic cells (DCs) facilitate recognition of peptide-MHC complexes by the TCR. In this report, we studied the dynamic behavior of adhesion and Ag receptors on DCs during initial contacts with T-cells. Adhesion molecules LFA-1- and ICAM-1,3-GFP as well as MHC class II-GFP molecules were very rapidly concentrated at the DC contact area. Binding of ICAM-3, and ICAM-1 to a lesser extent, to LFA-1 expressed by mature but not immature DC, induced MHC-II clustering into the immune synapse. Also, ICAM-3 binding to DC induced the activation of the Vav1-Rac1 axis, a regulatory pathway involved in actin cytoskeleton reorganization, which was essential for MHC-II clustering on DCs. Our results support a model in which ICAM-mediated MHC-II clustering on DC constitutes a priming mechanism to enhance antigen presentation to T-cells.

Expression pattern of the JAB1/CSN5 gene during murine embryogenesis: colocalization with NEDD8

The COP9 signalosome (CSN) is a conserved multiprotein complex, with an important developmental role in several organisms, ranging from plants to mammalians. The influence of the CSN on several signaling and developmental processes has been ascribed to its ability to regulate degradation of a number of signaling proteins by the ubiquitin-proteasome system. The CSN controls the function of the SCF ubiquitin-ligase complex through an enzymatic activity that removes the small ubiquitin-like molecule NEDD8 from the cullin component of the SCF and that requires subunit 5 of the CSN (JAB1/CSN5). Mutants of the CSN display early embryonic lethality, a feature that has hindered further characterization of the role of the CSN at later stages of mammalian development. Here we report the analysis of JAB1/CSN5 expression pattern in the mouse embryo. At early stages of development, JAB1/CSN5 transcripts were present with low expression levels in all tissues. Preferential expression in selected tissues was detected starting at E11.5, with higher levels in dorsal root ganglia; at later stages, prominent expression of JAB1/CSN5 transcripts was observed in cranial nerve, spinal and sympathetic ganglia, as well as in selected epithelia, such as the oral and the olfactory epithelium. In the adult brain, additional areas of JAB1/CSN5 expression were the hippocampus and the Purkinjie layer of the cerebellum. We also analyzed the temporal and spatial expression pattern of NEDD8, and found that it substantially overlapped JAB1/CSN5 expression at all stages analyzed, supporting the model of a functional interaction between the two proteins during developmental processes.

RanBPM is a phosphoprotein that associates with the plasma membrane and interacts with the integrin LFA-1

Integrin adhesion receptors can act as signaling receptors that transmit information from the extracellular environment to the interior of the cell, affecting many fundamental cellular processes, such as cell motility, proliferation, differentiation, and survival. Integrin signaling depends on the formation of organized sub-membrane complexes that comprise cytoskeletal, adapter, and signaling molecules. The identification of molecules that interact with the cytoplasmic domain of integrins has been the focus of research aimed to elucidating the mechanistic basis of integrin signal transduction. We have identified RanBPM as a novel interactor of the beta(2) integrin LFA-1 in a yeast-two-hybrid screen. In the same assay, RanBPM also interacted with the beta(1) integrin cytoplasmic domain. We demonstrate that RanBPM is a peripheral membrane protein and that integrins and RanBPM interact in vitro and in vivo and co-localize at the cell membrane. We find that RanBPM is phosphorylated on serine residues; phosphorylation of RanBPM is increased by stress stimuli and decreased by treatment with the p38 kinase inhibitor SB203580. Transfection of RanBPM synergizes with LFA-1-mediated adhesion in the transcriptional activation of an AP-1-dependent promoter, indicating that the two proteins interact functionally as well. We suggest that RanBPM may constitute a molecular scaffold that contributes to coupling LFA-1 and other integrins with intracellular signaling pathways.

T lymphocytes

T cells are major players in the adaptive immune response to pathogens. They express clonally distributed, highly polymorphic antigen receptors that enable them to recognize cell-associated antigen. Upon antigen recognition, T cells undergo clonal amplification and progressively acquire effector functions, ranging from the production of paracrine soluble factors that provide "help" to other immune cells to the ability to kill pathogen-infected cells with surgical precision. A pool of antigen-reactive T cells reverts to a state of quiescence and maintains a long-lasting memory of antigen encounter. T cells develop in the thymus through a rigorous selection process that recapitulates Darwinian phylogenesis: only the "fittest" survive, i.e. those that can efficiently recognize infectious non-self-antigens but ignore, or are silenced, by non-infectious self-antigens. Due to their ability to discriminate between self and non-self, T cells are the major effectors of allograft rejection. T cells are involved in the pathogenesis of several human disorders, resulting from their defective or dysregulated function. The former leads to a severe state of immunodeficiency, the latter to organ-specific or systemic autoimmunity.

The critical cytoplasmic regions of the alphaL/beta2 integrin in Rap1-induced adhesion and migration

Rap1 is a potent inside-out signal that increases LFA-1 adhesive activity. In this study, we have defined the cytoplasmic region of the alphaL and beta2 integrin that are required for Rap1-stimulated adhesion and subsequent migration on ICAM-1. Human LFA-1 bearing truncated and point-mutated alphaL and beta2 cytoplasmic regions were reconstituted in mouse IL-3-dependent proB cells, BAF/3. Truncation of the alphaL, but not beta2 subunit cytoplasmic region, abolished Rap1V12-dependent adhesion to ICAM-1. The alanine substitution of two lysine residues (K1097/K1099) in the alphaL subunit was found to be critical in adhesion induced by Rap1V12, but not PMA. This mutation suppressed Rap1V12-induced LFA-1 conformation changes and ligand-binding affinity. The K1097/K1099 mutation also impaired binding to ICAM-1 induced by TCR cross-linking or SDF-1. In contrast, the alanine substitution for tyrosine in the beta2 subunit endocytosis motif inhibited internalization of LFA-1, and severely impaired detachment at the cell rear, which resulted in long-elongated cell shapes. This result demonstrates that internalization of LFA-1 is a critical step in the deadhesion process. Our study revealed novel requirements of amino acid residues of the LFA-1 cytoplasmic region in the response to the inside-out signaling and the subsequent deadhesion process.

Characterization of human constitutive photomorphogenesis protein 1, a RING finger ubiquitin ligase that interacts with Jun transcription factors and modulates their transcriptional activity

RING finger proteins have been implicated in many fundamental cellular processes, including the control of gene expression. A key regulator of light-dependent development in Arabidopsis thaliana is the constitutive photomorphogenesis protein 1 (atCOP1), a RING finger protein that plays an essential role in translating light/dark signals into specific changes in gene transcription. atCOP1 binds the basic leucine zipper factor HY5 and suppresses its transcriptional activity through a yet undefined mechanism that results in HY5 degradation in response to darkness. Furthermore, the pleiotropic phenotype of atCOP1 mutants indicates that atCOP1 may be a central regulator of several transcriptional pathways. Here we report the cloning and characterization of the human orthologue of atCOP1. Human COP1 (huCOP1) distributes both to the cytoplasm and the nucleus of cells and shows a striking degree of sequence conservation with atCOP1, suggesting the possibility of a functional conservation as well. In co-immunoprecipitation assays huCOP1 specifically binds basic leucine zipper factors of the Jun family. As a functional consequence of this interaction, expression of huCOP1 in mammalian cells down-regulates c-Jun-dependent transcription and the expression of the AP-1 target genes, urokinase and matrix metalloproteinase 1. The RING domain of huCOP1 displays ubiquitin ligase activity in an autoubiquitination assay in vitro; however, suppression of AP-1-dependent transcription by huCOP1 occurs in the absence of changes in c-Jun protein levels, suggesting that this inhibitory effect is independent of c-Jun degradation. Our findings indicate that huCOP1 is a novel regulator of AP-1-dependent transcription sharing the important properties of Arabidopsis COP1 in the control of gene expression.

Macrophages exposed to Mycobacterium tuberculosis release chemokines able to recruit selected leucocyte subpopulations: focus on gammadelta cells

Granuloma is a typical feature of tuberculosis. We evaluated the chemotaxis of selected human leucocyte subsets induced by macrophages incubated with Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MT)-derived products in vitro. The release of monocyte chemotactic protein 1 (MCP-1) and interleukin-8 (IL-8) correlated with the specific induction of strong chemotaxis towards monocytes and polymorphonuclear leucocytes (PMNs). gammadelta and T helper type 1 (Th1) alphabeta lymphocytes were chemoattracted, while T-resting, IL-2-activated and Th2 lymphocytes were unaffected. Activation with mycobacterium-derived, phosphate-containing components, modulated the chemokine receptor profile of gammadelta T lymphocytes as well as their pattern of cyto-chemokine production, disclosing a potential for their active participation in granuloma formation. In particular, CXCR3 and IP-10, which we found to be released by MT-pulsed alveolar macrophages, seem to represent the receptor-counter-receptor pair implicated in the chemotaxis of gammadelta lymphocytes. Immunohistochemical analysis and in situ hybridization revealed the in vivo presence of IL-8, MCP-1 and IL-10 in lymph node and lung tuberculous granulomas. Our results underscore the role of MT extracts in the induction of macrophage-derived chemokines responsible for the orchestrated recruitment of PMNs, monocytes, and Th1 and gammadelta T cells, as well as in the regulation of gammadelta function.

Integrin-dependent regulation of gene expression in leukocytes

In addition to their role in strengthening intercellular adhesion, leukocyte integrins transduce signals which affect genetic programs, consequently defining cell phenotype and function. These signals can be independently sufficient, or can cooperate with other environmental stimuli to affect gene expression regulation. In the past several years, there has been an emergence of mechanistic data which contribute to our understanding of these critical integrin roles. In this review, we describe anchorage-dependent T lymphocyte proliferation and, in particular, how leukocyte integrin engagement overcomes the G1 to S cell cycle restriction point in antigen-activated T cells. The related role of alphaLbeta2 integrin (LFA-1) as a T cell co-stimulatory molecule is discussed. This includes defining mechanisms whereby LFA-1 engagement enhances transcriptional activation of numerous genes by regulating its association with transcription modulators such as JAB-1, and through interaction with other gene-activating signaling complexes such as JAK-STATs. Evidence is presented to support that leukocyte integrin engagement provides potent signals which stabilize otherwise labile activation mRNA transcripts, including those encoding cytokine and extracellular matrix degrading proteins. These integrin-dependent mechanisms, all described recently, play important roles in T cell differentiation and proliferation, immune surveillance and inflammatory responses.

Inhibition of interferon-gamma-mediated microvascular endothelial cell major histocompatibility complex class II gene activation by HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors

BACKGROUND

Graft vascular disease, a major cause of late graft failure in cardiac transplant patients, is associated with the presence of class II major histocompatibility complex molecules on the endothelium. 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl (HMG)-CoA reductase inhibitors, e.g., simvastatin, have been shown to reduce the incidence of graft vascular disease. We studied the effect of simvastatin on interferon (IFN)-gamma-induced human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-DR expression in human microvascular endothelial cells (MVECs).

METHODS AND RESULTS

Simvastatin pretreatment inhibited MVEC HILA-DR induction by IFN-gamma, as detected by flow cytometry. Simvastatin's inhibitory effect was reversed by the cholesterol synthesis pathway intermediates mevalonate and geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate but not squalene, indicating the involvement of protein prenylation in this process. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction analysis demonstrated that induction of class II transactivator (CIITA), and consequently, HLA-DRalpha mRNA, is abrogated by simvastatin. Although signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT)-1 is a critical CIITA gene transactivator, immunofluorescence studies, Western blotting, and electrophoretic mobility shift assays demonstrated that IFN-gamma-induced STAT-1 phosphorylation, nuclear translocation, and DNA binding are not affected by simvastatin. However, simvastatin inhibited IFN-gamma-induced transactivation of a CIITA promoter IV reporter construct, indicating the involvement of this promoter in the inhibitory effect of simvastatin.

CONCLUSIONS

Simvastatin pretreatment inhibits CIITA and consequent HLA-DR induction by IFN-gamma in MVECs through interference with protein prenylation. This inhibitory effect occurs at the level of transcription and is directed, at least in part, at the CIITA promoter IV. These results explain some of the beneficial effects of HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors in cardiac transplantation.

The localization of human cyclins B1 and B2 determines CDK1 substrate specificity and neither enzyme requires MEK to disassemble the Golgi apparatus

In this paper, we show that substrate specificity is primarily conferred on human mitotic cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) by their subcellular localization. The difference in localization of the B-type cyclin-CDKs underlies the ability of cyclin B1-CDK1 to cause chromosome condensation, reorganization of the microtubules, and disassembly of the nuclear lamina and of the Golgi apparatus, while it restricts cyclin B2-CDK1 to disassembly of the Golgi apparatus. We identify the region of cyclin B2 responsible for its localization and show that this will direct cyclin B1 to the Golgi apparatus and confer upon it the more limited properties of cyclin B2. Equally, directing cyclin B2 to the cytoplasm with the NH(2) terminus of cyclin B1 confers the broader properties of cyclin B1. Furthermore, we show that the disassembly of the Golgi apparatus initiated by either mitotic cyclin-CDK complex does not require mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase (MEK) activity.

Simvastatin modulates cytokine-mediated endothelial cell adhesion molecule induction: involvement of an inhibitory G protein

Endothelial cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) E-selectin, ICAM-1, and VCAM-1 play variably important roles in immune-mediated processes. They are induced by the proinflammatory cytokines IL-1 and TNF-alpha, and NF-kappaB is required for the regulated expression of all three genes. Regulators of this pathway could potentially be potent immune modulators. We studied the effect of a 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase inhibitor, simvastatin, on cytokine-induced expression of CAMs in HUVEC. Unexpectedly, pretreatment with simvastatin potentiated the induction of all three endothelial CAMs by IL-1 and TNF, but not LPS or PMA, as detected by flow cytometry. Northern blot analysis demonstrated an increase in steady state IL-1-induced E-selectin mRNA levels in cells pretreated with simvastatin. This was associated with an increase in nuclear translocation of NF-kappaB, as detected by EMSA. The effect of simvastatin was reversed by mevalonate and geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate but not squalene, indicating that an inhibitory prenylated protein is involved in endothelial responses to proinflammatory cytokines. Pertussis toxin mimicked the effect of simvastatin, and the G protein activator NaF inhibited the cytokine-induced expression of endothelial CAMs, indicating that a Gialpha protein is involved. These results demonstrate that cytokine-mediated activation of the endothelium, and specifically CAM induction, can be modulated by a heterotrimeric G protein-coupled pathway. This may represent a "basal tone" of endothelial inactivation, which can either be disinhibited or amplified, depending on the stimulus.

Integrin LFA-1 interacts with the transcriptional co-activator JAB1 to modulate AP-1 activity

Integrin adhesion receptors transduce signals that control complex cell functions which require the regulation of gene expression, such as proliferation, differentiation and survival. Their intracellular domain has no catalytic function, indicating that interaction with other transducing molecules is crucial for integrin-mediated signalling. Here we have identified a protein that interacts with the cytoplasmic domain of the beta2 subunit of the alphaL/beta2 integrin LFA-1. This protein is JAB1 (Jun activation domain-binding protein 1), a coactivator of the c-Jun transcription factor. We found that JAB1 is present both in the nucleus and in the cytoplasm of cells and that a fraction of JAB1 colocalizes with LFA-1 at the cell membrane. LFA-1 engagement is followed by an increase of the nuclear pool of JAB1, paralleled by enhanced binding of c-Jun-containing AP-1 complexes to their DNA consensus site and increased transactivation of an AP-1-dependent promoter. We suggest that signalling through the LFA-1 integrin may affect c-Jun-driven transcription by regulating JAB1 nuclear localization. This represents a new pathway for integrin-dependent modulation of gene expression.

CD28 and LFA-1 contribute to cyclosporin A-resistant T cell growth by stabilizing the IL-2 mRNA through distinct signaling pathways

In clinical transplantation, the occurrence of cyclosporin A (CsA)-resistant production of IL-2 in vitro correlates with graft rejection in vivo. In this study we investigated the role of the costimulatory molecules CD28 and LFA-1 in this process in the setting of TCR-induced proliferation of primary T lymphocytes in vitro. Co-stimulation with ICAM-1 and B7.2 led to strong and CsA-resistant proliferation, which was found to be largely IL-2 dependent. All of the known calcineurin-dependent events, such as induction of NF-AT and NF-kappaB or stress-activated protein kinase activation, were markedly modulated by CsA independently of costimulation. In contrast, both ICAM-1 and B7.2 enhanced the half-life of the inducible IL-2 transcript in a CsA-resistant manner. LFA-1- but not CD28-induced IL-2 mRNA stabilization required the integrity of the actin-based cytoskeleton, suggesting that the two costimulatory molecules impact on qualitatively different signaling pathways. This is further suggested by the demonstration that LFA-1 and CD28 acted synergistically to confer CsA resistance in a model of co-stimulation using superantigen-pulsed dendritic cells. We propose that IL-2 transcript accumulation and subsequent T cell proliferation at the low transcriptional rate imposed by CsA are the result of co-stimulation-dependent stabilization of IL-2 mRNA.

Chemokines fail to up-regulate beta 1 integrin-dependent adhesion in human Th2 T lymphocytes

Th1 and Th2 cells are functionally distinct subsets of CD4+ T lymphocytes whose tissue-specific homing to sites of inflammation is regulated in part by the differential expression of P- and E-selectin ligands and selected chemokine receptors. Here we investigated the expression and function of beta 1 integrins in Th1 and Th2 cells polarized in vitro. Th1 lymphocytes adhere transiently to the extracellular matrix ligands laminin 1 and fibronectin in response to chemokines such as RANTES and stromal cell-derived factor-1, and this process is paralleled by the activation of the Rac1 GTPase and by a rapid burst of actin polymerization. Selective inhibitors of phosphoinositide-3 kinase prevent efficiently all of the above processes, whereas the protein kinase C inhibitor bisindolylmaleimide prevents chemokine-induced adhesion without affecting Rac1 activation and actin polymerization. Notably, chemokine-induced adhesion to beta 1 integrin ligands is markedly reduced in Th2 cells. Such a defect cannot be explained by a reduced sensitivity to chemokine stimulation in this T cell subset, nor by a defective activation of the signaling cascade involving phosphoinositide-3 kinase, Rac1, and actin turnover, as all these processes are activated at comparable levels by chemokines in the two subsets. We propose that reduced beta 1 integrin-mediated adhesion in Th2 cells may restrain their ability to invade and/or reside in sites of chronic inflammation, which are characterized by thickening of basement membranes and extensive fibrosis, requiring efficient interaction with organized extracellular matrices.

Circulating, Mycobacterium tuberculosis-specific lymphocytes from PPD skin test-negative patients with tuberculosis do not secrete interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) and lack the cutaneous lymphocyte antigen skin-selective homing receptor

Individuals with a negative intradermal reaction to tuberculin PPD have long been described in the Mycobacterium tuberculosis exposed, immune-competent population. Here, we studied PPD-specific blood T lymphocytes from these subjects for phenotypic markers relevant to skin migration, including the expression of the skin-selective homing receptor, the cutaneous lymphocyte-associated antigen (CLA). Out of 82 patients with active tuberculosis we identified four subjects who were repeatedly PPD skin test-negative. CD4 T lymphocytes specific to mycobacterial antigens were derived from these individuals, which (i) proliferated in vitro to M. tuberculosis antigens comparably to those from PPD+ patients; (ii) secreted comparable amounts of IL-2 but lower amounts of IFN-gamma; (iii) were confined within the CLA-negative T cell subset. We conclude that the negative tuberculin reaction in a small subset of patients exposed to mycobacteria is associated with impaired production of IFN-gamma by circulating PPD-specific T cells that are lacking CLA expression. On this basis in vitro proliferation to PPD can discriminate bona fide non-responders from infected patients with a deficit in the margination of M. tuberculosis-specific T lymphocytes.

Upregulation of integrin alpha6/beta1 and chemokine receptor CCR1 by interleukin-12 promotes the migration of human type 1 helper T cells

CD4(+) T helper 1 (Th1) cells and Th2 cells are distinguished based on the pattern of cytokines they are able to produce. Selectin ligands and chemokine receptors are differentially expressed in Th1 and Th2 cells, providing a basis for tissue-specific recruitment of helper T-cell subsets. However, the modes and mechanisms regulating tissue-specific localization of Th1 and Th2 cells are still largely unknown. Here, we show the preferential expression on Th1 cells of the integrin alpha6/beta1, which is distinctly regulated by the Th1-inducing cytokines interleukin-12 (IL-12) and interferon-alfa (IFN-alpha). The pattern of integrin alpha6/beta1 regulation closely mirrors that of the chemokine receptor CCR1. Analysis of signal transducer and activator of transcription 4 (Stat4) activation by IL-12 and IFN-alpha shows distinct signaling kinetics by these cytokines, correlating with the pattern of CCR1 and integrin alpha6/beta1 expression. Unlike IFN-alpha, the ability of IL-12 to generate prolonged intracellular signals appears to be critical for inducing integrin alpha6/beta1 upregulation in Th1 cells. The expression and upregulation of CCR1 and alpha6/beta1 integrin promotes the migration of Th1 cells. These findings suggest that the exquisite regulation of integrin alpha6/beta1 and CCR1 may play an important role in tissue-specific localization of Th1 cells.

A tyrosine-based sorting signal in the beta2 integrin cytoplasmic domain mediates its recycling to the plasma membrane and is required for ligand-supported migration

Integrins play pivotal roles in supporting shear- and mechanical-stress-resistant cell adhesion and migration. These functions require the integrity of the short beta subunit cytoplasmic domains, which contain multiple, highly conserved tyrosine-based endocytic signals, typically found in receptors undergoing regulated, clathrin-dependent endocytosis. We hypothesized that these sequences may control surface integrin dynamics in statically adherent and/or locomoting cells via regulated internalization and polarized recycling of the receptors. By using site-directed mutagenesis and ectopic expression of the alphaL/beta2 integrin in Chinese hamster ovary cells, we found that Y735 in the membrane-proximal YRRF sequence is selectively required for recycling of spontaneously internalized receptors to the cell surface and to growth factor-induced membrane ruffles. Disruption of this motif by non-conservative substitutions has no effect on the receptor's adhesive function, but diverts internalized integrins from a recycling compartment into a degradative pathway. Conversely, the non-conservative F754A substitution in the membrane-proximal NPLF sequence abrogates ligand-dependent adhesion and spreading without affecting receptor recycling. Both of these mutants display a severe impairment in ligand-supported migration, suggesting the existence in integrin cytoplasmic domains of independent signals regulating apparently unrelated functions that are required to sustain cell migration over specific ligands.

Anchorage dependence of mitogen-induced G1 to S transition in primary T lymphocytes

Anchorage dependence defines the cellular requirement for integrin-mediated adhesion to substrate to initiate DNA replication in response to growth factors. In this study we investigated whether normal T cells, which spend extended periods in a nonadherent state, show similar requirements for cell cycle progression in response to TCR stimulation. Resting primary T lymphocytes were induced to enter the cell cycle by TCR triggering, and leukocyte integrins were either engaged using purified ICAM-1 or inhibited with function-blocking mAbs. Our data indicate that leukocyte integrins complement TCR-driven mitogenic signals not as a result of their direct clustering but, rather, via integrin-dependent organization of the actin cytoskeleton. Leukocyte integrin-dependent reorganization of the actin cytoskeleton cooperates with the TCR to effect mitogen-activated protein kinase activation, but also represents a required late (4-8 h poststimulation) component in the mitogenic response of normal T cells. Prolonged leukocyte integrin-dependent spreading, in the context of intercellular contact, is a requisite for the production of the mitogenic cytokine IL-2, which, in turn, is involved in the induction of D3 cyclin and is primarily responsible for the decrease in the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p27kip, resulting in retinoblastoma protein inactivation and S phase entry. Thus, T lymphocytes represent a peculiar case of anchorage dependence, in which signals conveyed by integrins act sequentially with the activating stimulus to effect a sustained production of the essential mitogenic cytokine.

Anchorage Dependence of Mitogen-Induced G1 to S Transition in Primary T Lymphocytes

Anchorage dependence defines the cellular requirement for integrin-mediated adhesion to substrate to initiate DNA replication in response to growth factors. In this study we investigated whether normal T cells, which spend extended periods in a nonadherent state, show similar requirements for cell cycle progression in response to TCR stimulation. Resting primary T lymphocytes were induced to enter the cell cycle by TCR triggering, and leukocyte integrins were either engaged using purified ICAM-1 or inhibited with function-blocking mAbs. Our data indicate that leukocyte integrins complement TCR-driven mitogenic signals not as a result of their direct clustering but, rather, via integrin-dependent organization of the actin cytoskeleton. Leukocyte integrin-dependent reorganization of the actin cytoskeleton cooperates with the TCR to effect mitogen-activated protein kinase activation, but also represents a required late (4–8 h poststimulation) component in the mitogenic response of normal T cells. Prolonged leukocyte integrin-dependent spreading, in the context of intercellular contact, is a requisite for the production of the mitogenic cytokine IL-2, which, in turn, is involved in the induction of D3 cyclin and is primarily responsible for the decrease in the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p27kip, resulting in retinoblastoma protein inactivation and S phase entry. Thus, T lymphocytes represent a peculiar case of anchorage dependence, in which signals conveyed by integrins act sequentially with the activating stimulus to effect a sustained production of the essential mitogenic cytokine.