Behavioral Ethics: Ethical Practice Is More Than Memorizing Compliance Codes

Disciplines establish and enforce professional codes of ethics in order to guide ethical and safe practice. Unfortunately, ethical breaches still occur. Interestingly, it is found that breaches are often perpetrated by professionals who are aware of their codes of ethics and believe that they engage in ethical practice. The constructs of behavioral ethics, which are most often discussed in business settings, attempt to explain why ethical professionals sometimes engage in unethical behavior. Although traditionally based on theories of social psychology, the principles underlying behavioral ethics are consistent with behavior analysis. When conceptualized as operant behavior, ethical and unethical decisions are seen as being evoked and maintained by environmental variables. As with all forms of operant behavior, antecedents in the environment can trigger unethical responses, and consequences in the environment can shape future unethical responses. In order to increase ethical practice among professionals, an assessment of the environmental variables that affect behavior needs to be conducted on a situation-by-situation basis. Knowledge of discipline-specific professional codes of ethics is not enough to prevent unethical practice. In the current article, constructs used in behavioral ethics are translated into underlying behavior-analytic principles that are known to shape behavior. How these principles establish and maintain both ethical and unethical behavior is discussed.

Soft Skills: The Case for Compassionate Approaches or How Behavior Analysis Keeps Finding Its Heart

As the field of behavior analysis expands, our need to develop ourselves as more effective collaborators, particularly with families who may be the primary consumers of our science, becomes paramount. As scientists, our training lies primarily in the behavior analytic technologies that we study and apply. But our ability to disseminate our science, collaborate with non-behavior analysts, and ultimately grow our field hinges on our ability to navigate interpersonal situations in a way that puts forth compassion and humanity. We have the opportunity and capability to use our empirical procedures to implement and assess the effectiveness of interventions that target the soft skills of our field. The current article discusses the benefits of empathic and collaborative approaches in fields related to behavior analysis and provides suggestions for current behavior analysts to incorporate compassionate care into their practices. We provide a checklist for compassionate interactions accompanied by possibilities for its use as a tool for self-evaluation, procedural fidelity, and comprehensive training in the area of collaboration with families. Finally, we discuss areas for future research with respect to assessing and improving behavior analysts' compassionate approaches to treatment.

Jack and Me

Although Jack Michael has greatly influenced the field of behavior analysis, very few have had the opportunity to be directly supervised by him. In this article, I share my personal history as one of Jack's last graduate students to illustrate his teaching and mentorship approach. Jack was a caring advisor who has had a long-lasting impact on both my personal life and my professional career.

Probabilistic generative modeling and reinforcement learning extract the intrinsic features of animal behavior

It is one of the ultimate goals of ethology to understand the generative process of animal behavior, and the ability to reproduce and control behavior is an important step in this field. However, it is not easy to achieve this goal in systems with complex and stochastic dynamics such as animal behavior. In this study, we have shown that MDN-RNN,a type of probabilistic deep generative model, is able to reproduce stochastic animal behavior with high accuracy by modeling the behavior of C. elegans. Furthermore, we found that the model learns different dynamics in a disentangled representation as a time-evolving Gaussian mixture. Finally, by combining the model and reinforcement learning, we were able to extract a behavioral policy of goal-directed behavior in silico, and showed that it can be used for regulating the behavior of real animals. This set of methods will be applicable not only to animal behavior but also to broader areas such as neuroscience and robotics.

Brazilian Government Strategies to Protect Women

In 2018, 22,000,000 Brazilian women experienced some type of violence (either physical or psychological), and 42% of these episodes occurred in the domestic environment. Therefore, government strategies have been developed to solve this problem. This study aimed to (a) carry out a survey of Brazilian government strategies for the protection of women after the creation of the Maria da Penha Law (Law No. 11.340, 2006) and (b) discuss these strategies from the concept of cultural design. Sixteen laws, five decrees, and two ordinances were found and analyzed. In a general way, the analysis suggests that they are not effective cultural plans because most do not show long-term results, and some of the laws that typify crimes and those that relate to the aggressor's behavior do not specify the target behaviors, so there is no explicit contingency. Despite this, such strategies are relevant, as they end up providing the protective context for women from a social, legal, and political point of view. Finally, it is expected that the discussions raised in the present work can help prepare interventions that favor socially beneficial cultural practices.

A Systematic Review and Quantitative Analysis of Interteaching

Interteaching is a behavioral teaching method that departs from the traditional lecture format (Boyce & Hineline in BA 25:215-226, 2002). We updated and expanded previous interteaching reviews and conducted a meta-analysis on its effectiveness. Systematic searches identified 38 relevant studies spanning the years 2005-2018. The majority of these studies were conducted in undergraduate face-to-face courses. The most common independent variables were manipulations of the configuration of interteaching or comparisons to traditional-lecture format. The most common dependent variables were quiz or examination scores. Only 24% of all studies implemented at least five of the seven components of interteaching. Prep guides, discussions, record sheets, and frequent assessments were the most commonly implemented. Meta-analyses indicated that interteaching is more effective than traditional lecture or other control conditions, with an overall large effect size. Furthermore, variations in the configuration of the interteaching components do not seem to substantially limit its effectiveness, as long as the discussion component is included. Future research informed by the present review includes: (a) investigating the efficacy of interteaching in additional academic areas, online environments, workplace training, and continuing education, (b) testing alternative outcome measures, generalization, and procedural integrity, (c) conducting systematic component analyses, and (d) measuring social validity from the instructor's perspective.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10864-021-09452-3.

LINCE PLUS software for systematic observational studies in sports and health

This paper aims to offer a free software program, LINCE PLUS, suitable for systematic observational studies in sports and health, conducted in natural contexts such as training, education or psychology. Using one or several videos simultaneously, different parameters such as behaviors, decision-making or strategies can be analyzed. The software includes several functionalities for studies that researchers need to utilize throughout the observational study process. Collaborative work can be accomplished by using simultaneous videos and multiple observers. The results of all research conducted by LINCE PLUS are offered inside the application in real time, enabling common calculations or including specific analysis with R language without the need for any other external tool. Moreover, LINCE PLUS shows the results of each study with interactive charts or, if needed, it exports the data to specific data analysis software programs (e.g., SAS, Excel, Theme, GSEQ 5, Hoisan). We include examples of sports and health studies that have been conducted with LINCE PLUS to show the suitability of this software program.

Advocating for the Use of Restorative Justice Practices: Examining the Overlap between Restorative Justice and Behavior Analysis

Broadly defined, restorative justice (RJ) is a set of procedures based in Indigenous peacemaking practices that reduces recidivism and guides the effective reparation of harm. RJ practices provide harm-affected parties an opportunity for engagement in the resolution process, which theoretically enhances community well-being. RJ practices overlap significantly with behavior-analytic principles. Implementing RJ practices from a context-focused, appetitive-based approach that focuses on classes of behaviors may address harmful behaviors within police organizations. RJ practices may also facilitate changes in contexts that support behaviors valued by the community. The current review discusses criminal and restorative justice, RJ processes and practices, the effectiveness of RJ in various contexts, how RJ overlaps with behavior-analytic principles and existing behavior science models in general, research suggestions, and recommendations for behavior analysts implementing RJ within police organizations and communities to address officer misconduct.

A Look in the Mirror: How the Field of Behavior Analysis Can become Anti-Racist

Sparked by recent events, discussions of systemic racism and racial inequalities have been pushed to the foreground of our global society, leading to what is being called the largest modern-day civil rights movement (Buchanan et al., 2020). In the past, Black, Indigenous, and People of Color (BIPOC) activists and scholars, among others, have evaluated and critiqued systems and organizations within our society. Nonetheless, it was not until recently that this movement was truly noticed by a greater number of people, some of whom are now further assessing how BIPOC are viewed and treated within their organization and by society as a whole (Worland, 2020). This is not only due to the increase in video evidence (e.g., released body cam footage, social media postings), but also the previous administration's rhetoric and political agenda (Hubler & Bosman, 2021). Police departments, educational institutions, and large companies have, for decades, been under scrutiny for their systems and practices that promote racism, inequality, and inequity. The field of behavior analysis, with its Eurocentric roots and observed lack of diversity, equity, and inclusion, is not exempt from such evaluations. It is time that we take a look in the mirror and evaluate our own professional, research, educational, and clinical practices, and work towards creating a new, more inclusive, field of behavior analysis that promotes anti-racism and cultural humility.

Maintaining Aging Hippocampal Function with Safe and Feasible Shaking Exercise in SAMP10 Mice

INTRODUCTION

The disabling effects of dementia, an incurable disease with little effect on mortality, affect society far more than many other conditions.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to stop or delay the onset of dementia using low-cost methods such as physical exercise.

METHODS

Senescence-accelerated model-prone (SAMP) 10 mice were made to perform a user-friendly shaking exercise for 25 weeks. The motor function and hippocampal functions (learning, spatial cognition) of the mice were evaluated using behavioral experiments. The degree of hippocampal aging was evaluated based on brain morphology. The association between behavioral performance of the mice and the degree of hippocampal aging was then evaluated.

RESULTS

The behavioral test results showed that the shaking group had higher motor coordination (p < 0.01) and motor learning (p < 0.05). Significantly higher performances in the learning ability were observed in the shaking group at a middle-period experiment (p < 0.05); the spatial cognitive functions also improved (p < 0.05). The shaking group showed delayed ageing of cells in the dentate gyrus (DG; area: p < 0.01) and cornu Ammonis (CA; area: p < 0.01) regions of the hippocampus.

CONCLUSIONS

The shaking exercise enhances the activity of mice and reduces age-associated decreases in learning and spatial cognitive functions. Regarding hippocampal morphology, shaking exercise can prevent non-functional protein accumulation, cell atrophy, and cell loss. Specifically, shaking exercise protects cell growth and regeneration in the DG area and enhances the learning function of the hippocampus. Furthermore, shaking exercise maintained the spatial cognitive function of cells in the CA3 and CA1 regions, and prevented the chronic loss of CA2 transmission that decreased the spatial memory decline in mice.

A Behavior-Analytic Approach to Antivaccination Practices

In recent years, there has been an increase in outbreaks of diseases that are preventable by vaccination. As vaccination involves behavior, behavior analysts are uniquely positioned to contribute solutions to this socially significant problem. The present article explores a behavior-analytic approach to understanding the function of the behavior of both people who have their children vaccinated and those who do not have their children vaccinated, and potential interventions to increase vaccination rates. An introduction to the problem is followed by a brief history of the antivaccination movement. In our analysis, a failure to vaccinate is conceptualized as a noncompliance response (i.e., medical nonadherence), and conditions giving rise to that noncompliance are evaluated. In this process, the roles of avoidance, the functional-altering impact of rule-governed behavior, relational frames, and countercontrol are considered. Potential solutions informed by applied behavior-analytic literature, including contingency management and behavioral safety, are discussed.

Anger, Fear, and Sadness: How Emotions Could Help Us End a Pandemic of Racism

Racism, recently referred to as another kind of pandemic, affects the health and safety of diverse individuals within the United States and around the world. Emotions are a powerful and integral aspect of the experience of racism; however, within the field of behavior analysis, we have been hesitant to acknowledge emotion or explore how it relates to behavior and behavioral contingencies. As a result, the scope of our understanding of emotion is limited. To better understand the current experience and perception of practitioners in the field of behavior analysis, as they relate to emotion and racism, a brief survey was conducted. Findings indicated that although many may be comfortable discussing emotion and displaying emotions for themselves and others, this was not the case for everyone. Further, many were uncomfortable discussing racism. Although participants believed that emotions of racism are important and should be addressed by the field of behavior analysis, they think the field has not done enough work in this area. The results of the study lead to several recommendations, including additional antiracism research and the acknowledgment of emotional experience, as well as for how individuals can better understand, and maybe reduce, the negative emotions associated with oppression.

Cultivating the Ethical Repertoires of Behavior Analysts: Prevention of Common Violations

Violations of the Professional and Ethical Compliance Code for Behavior Analysts occur despite coursework, supervision, and training. In this discussion, we highlight the most common violation categories identified: (a) improper or inadequate supervision/delegation, (b) failure to report/respond to the Behavior Analyst Certification Board (BACB) as required, and (c) professionalism/integrity. The specific areas addressed under supervision/delegation involve behavior analysts' standards and performance as supervisors, as well as compliance with coursework. For failure to report, the focus is on responding, reporting, and providing updated information to the BACB in a timely manner. Finally, the section on professionalism and integrity addresses multiple code elements, including integrity, professionalism, and scientific relationships, as well as methods for promoting an ethical culture and decisions involving ethical violations by others. Importantly, we provide guidance on the structure and organization of supervision, methods and guidelines regarding reporting, and rubrics to shape and evaluate professionalism and integrity. We provide recommendations for the supervision process and for practitioners from the organizational perspective so that the organization supports and promotes an ethical culture.

The Function of the Police Force: A Behavior-Analytic Review of the History of How Policing in America Came to Be

The racial differentiation of policing in America has been widely researched and documented (Walker & Katz, 2008; Wilson & Kelling, 1982). Although these discrepancies are largely documented, there have been few changes within the policies, procedures and laws governing police officers. The results of this are two-fold. First, it has led to the continuation of individual acts of racism of police officers across the country. Second, it has upheld the systemic racism that results in the discrepancies in outcomes between Black people and white people, making it more likely that Black individuals will interact with police officers and have more negative outcomes as a result of these interactions. The reasons for this include lack of data regarding the race of the police officers involved in fatal officer-involved shootings, reliance on self-report of officers regarding instances of excessive force, and lack of accountability of individuals and departments alike. These issues are symptoms of the larger problems of individual and institutionalized racism that not only increases racism within those within the police force, but also increases the likeliness that any police officer will engage in violence against a person of color. To develop effective interventions that will change policing behaviors and the racism observed within the police force, one must first understand the historical development and function of policing and its intersection with both individual and institutional racism. This paper will provide a clear definition of racism followed by a function-based behavior analytic examination of the historical development of policing in America.

On the challenges of cognitive psychopathology research and possible ways forward: Arguments for a pragmatic cognitive approach

Cognitive psychology had a profound impact on psychopathology research. Nevertheless, the fact that cognition cannot be observed or manipulated directly complicates debates about the nature of the mental mechanisms that mediate psychopathology. This is less troublesome for psychopathology researchers who adopt an explicitly pragmatic approach that aims to use cognitive theories as tools for improving psychotherapy than for psychopathology researchers who seek to establish whether those theories are 'correct.' A pragmatic cognitive approach fosters progress by encouraging (a) reality-checks aimed at ending unproductive theoretical debates between cognitive theories, (b) a separation between to-be-explained psychological phenomena and explanatory mental constructs, (c) theoretical diversity, and (d) interactions with behavior analysis.

Impact of County Sociodemographic Factors and State Policy on Geographic Access to Behavior Analysts Among Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder

To examine the relationship between geographic access to Board Certified Behavior Analysts (BCBAs) among children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and county sociodemographic factors and state policy, we integrated publicly available data from the U.S. Department of Education’s Civil Rights Data Collection, Behavior Analyst Certification Board’s certificant registry, and U.S. Census. The study sample included U.S. counties and county equivalents (e.g., parishes, independent cities) in 49 states and D.C. (N = 3040). Using GIS software, we assigned BCBAs to counties based on their residence, allocated children via school districts to counties, and generated per-capita children with ASD/BCBA ratios. We distributed counties into five categories based on these ratios: no BCBAs (reference), ≥ 31, 21–30, 11–20, > 0–10. We used a generalized logit model to conduct analyses. Highly affluent and urban counties had the highest access to BCBAs with odds ratio estimates for affluence ranging from 2.26 to 5.26. County-level poverty was positively associated with access, yet this relationship was moderated by urbanicity. Race-ethnicity and healthcare insurance coverage were negatively related to access. Other variables were not significant. Targeting non-urban and less affluent counties for provider recruitment and maintenance could most improve access to BCBAs. In addition to strategies specific to BCBAs for improving geographic access, traditional strategies used for other healthcare providers could be useful.

Orange is the New Asylum: Incarceration of Individuals with Disabilities

Individuals with disabilities and/or mental health concerns were historically removed from society and placed in institutions and asylums. Advocacy groups, drawing on civil rights movements, protested and lobbied for deinstitutionalization and increased inclusion of disabled individuals in schools and communities (Chapman et al., 2014). Although disabled individuals have more rights and access than ever before, they are still segregated in schools, encounter the judicial system more often, and are murdered by police (Reingle Gonzalez et al. in Journal of Disability Policy Studies 27:106-115, 2016). We examine the history and ongoing incarceration of individuals with differences in the United States by analyzing contextual variables, as well as systemic inequities, including the school-to-prison pipeline, access to services, and prison infrastructure. We offer resources and actionable ways for behavior analysts to begin antiracist and anti-disableist work, apply principles of behavior analysis to address personal and systemic racism, and engage in advocacy toward a more just and equitable future for all.

Rules of Conduct for Behavior Analysts in the Presence of Hypothetical Constructs: A Commentary on Eckard and Lattal (2020)

Eckard and Lattal (2020) summarized the behavioristic view of hypothetical constructs and theories, and then, in a novel and timely manner, applied this view to a critique of internal clock models of temporal control. In our three-part commentary, we aim to contribute to the authors' discussion by first expanding upon their view of the positive contributions afforded by constructs and theories. We then refine and question their view of the perils of reifying constructs and assigning them causal properties. Finally, we suggest to behavior analysts four rules of conduct for dealing with mediational theories: tolerate constructs proposed with sufficient reason; consider them seriously, both empirically and conceptually; develop alternative, behavior-analytic models with overlapping empirical domains; and contrast the various models. Through variation and selection, behavioral science will evolve.

Animal Behavior and Learning: Support from Applied Behavior Analysis

Applied behavior analysis (ABA) is a relevant field for veterinarians helping clients whose animals engage in problem behaviors. In ABA, learning is defined as behavior change due to changes in the environment. Changing behavior then requires changes in conditions. Understanding the importance of control and the difference between emotional behavior and emotional feelings also is informed by ABA. Every behavior intervention should start with a systematic, analytical process called a functional assessment. Behavior change strategies are described, including an ethical procedural hierarchy based on the least intrusive, effective behavior change solution.

Free gait in a shallow pool accelerates recovery after exercise in model mice with fibromyalgia

This study aimed to determine the effect of pool gait exercise using fibromyalgia-induced model mice. The sensory threshold, locomotive behavior, electrocardiogram, and onset time after the gait test in shallow water using male C57BL/6J mice (weight, 30–35 g; n=21) were investigated. To induce fibromyalgia in model mice, reserpine was injected intraperitoneally into wild-type mice once a day for 3 days. Subsequently, the fibromyalgia-induced model mice were randomly classified into two groups as follows: the control group (n=11) and the pool gait group (n=10). The mice in the pool gait group walked in the same cage containing shallow warm water 5 times per week. Both groups underwent sensory thresholds and video recordings to determine locomotive behaviors weekly. Further, both heart rate and video recordings for observation of a recovery after the gait test in shallow water were undertaken (control group; n=5, pool gait group; n=5). The pool gait did not affect sensory thresholds and locomotive behavior; however, in the pool gait group, both the recovery after the test, such as onset time and gait distance, were considerably better than those of the control group. Furthermore, changes in heart rate and heart rate irregularity after the test were more apparent in the control group than in the pool gait group. The free gait in a shallow pool accelerated recovery after exercise, unlike the sensory threshold.

Tutorial: Applying Machine Learning in Behavioral Research

Machine-learning algorithms hold promise for revolutionizing how educators and clinicians make decisions. However, researchers in behavior analysis have been slow to adopt this methodology to further develop their understanding of human behavior and improve the application of the science to problems of applied significance. One potential explanation for the scarcity of research is that machine learning is not typically taught as part of training programs in behavior analysis. This tutorial aims to address this barrier by promoting increased research using machine learning in behavior analysis. We present how to apply the random forest, support vector machine, stochastic gradient descent, and k-nearest neighbors algorithms on a small dataset to better identify parents of children with autism who would benefit from a behavior analytic interactive web training. These step-by-step applications should allow researchers to implement machine-learning algorithms with novel research questions and datasets.

Behavior-Analytic Approaches to the Management of Diabetes Mellitus: Current Status and Future Directions

Diabetes mellitus is the seventh leading cause of death in the United States, requiring a series of complex behavior changes that must be sustained for a lifetime (e.g., counting carbohydrates, self-monitoring blood glucose, adjusting insulin). Although complex, all of these tasks involve behavior, making them amenable targets for behavior analysts. In this article, the authors describe interventions that have focused on antecedent, consequent, multicomponent, and alternate procedures for the management of diabetes, highlighting ways in which technology has been used to overcome common barriers to the use of these intensive, evidence-based interventions. Additional variables relevant to poorly managed diabetes (e.g., delay discounting) are also discussed. Future research and practice should focus on harnessing continued advances in information technology while also considering underexplored behavioral technologies for the effective treatment of diabetes, with a focus on identifying sustainable, long-term solutions for maintaining proper diabetes management. Practical implementation of these interventions will depend on having qualified behavior analysts working in integrated primary care settings where the interventions are most likely to be used, which will require interdisciplinary training and collaboration.

When Rules Are Not Enough: Developing Principles to Guide Ethical Conduct

Currently, certified behavior analysts are required to adhere to the ethical rules established by the Behavior Analyst Certification Board® (BACB®) known as the Professional and Ethical Compliance Code for Behavior Analysts (BACB, 2014; hereafter referred to as the BACB Code). Applying these rules without context, however, can result in an overly simplified and mechanistic approach to ethical problem solving. Ethical rules that lack guiding principles may also pose dissemination challenges for behavior analysts tasked with communicating the field's ethical ideals to nonbehavioral colleagues and stakeholders. This article describes the process that our applied behavior analysis organization used to develop a set of guiding ethical principles to supplement the BACB Code. These principles guide our members' ethical decision making and assist them in disseminating our organization's ideals. Following a description of the principle development process, we present our organization's ethical principles and discuss how behavior analysts can use them to make clinical and ethical decisions, and address dissemination challenges.

Using Delay Fading Procedures to Increase Self-Control

Children and adolescents, relative to adults, disproportionately favor smaller, immediate outcomes over larger, delayed outcomes. From a behavioral perspective, this sensitivity toward immediate rewards constitutes impulsive choice, which characterizes numerous behavioral health problems commonly observed during childhood (particularly among individuals with neurobehavioral disabilities). Accordingly, a variety of behavioral technologies have been developed and are widely implemented in applied settings (e.g., self-monitoring programs, interdependent group contingencies, individualized token reinforcement programs) to reduce impulsive responding and promote self-control. Although there is a plethora of research literature detailing these interventions, several promising delay fading procedures may also have clinical utility in applied treatment contexts. The purpose of the present review is to highlight contemporary behavior-analytic research involving delay fading procedures that may increase self-control among children and adolescents and facilitate additional research in the area of self-control.

Risky Business: Increasing Risky Betting Through Rule-Governed Behavior

The present study replicated and extended previous research by exploring the extent to which rules altered participants' engagement in risky betting in an electronic blackjack game. A multiple-baseline across-participants design with predetermined phase changes was used to assess 4 recreational gamblers' betting patterns in blackjack across 3 phases. During baseline, participants played blackjack with no exposure to rules. In the faulty rules phase, researchers gave participants a rule that suggested larger payouts would occur if gamblers played let-it-ride bets. Let-it-ride bets were placed after a winning hand and required participants to wager their entire winnings on the next hand. During the correct rules phase, researchers gave participants a rule that suggested that the let-it-ride bets did not result in larger payouts. Data on let-it-ride bets across each minute of play were collected. The results of the study demonstrated that the frequency of risky bets increased when participants were exposed to the incorrect rule. Following participants' exposure to correct rules, risky bets decreased, but most participants did not return to baseline rates.