Midwifery students learning experiences in labor wards: a grounded theory

BACKGROUND

The labor ward is an important and challenging learning area for midwifery students. It is there the students learn in authentic complex situations, in intimate situations, with potential risk for the life and health of mothers and their babies.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to explore the main concern expressed by midwifery students in labor wards and how they handled this concern.

DESIGN

A longitudinal study based on grounded theory methodology was used. The participants were 10 postgraduate midwifery students, from a University College in Norway. Data were gathered and analyzed throughout the 2-year postgraduate program, in the students first, third and fourth semesters. Every student was interviewed three times in a total of 15 single and three focus-group sessions.

FINDINGS

The grounded theory of "building relationships" explains how students dealt with their main concern: "how to gain access to learning experiences". This theory consisted of three strategies; a) controlling vulnerability, b) cultivating trust and c) obtaining acceptance.

CONCLUSION

Clarifying discussions involving midwives and students may facilitate the process of building relationships and contribute to confident learning. Students appreciate it when the midwives initiate discussions about acute situations and state that a novice may perceive labor and childbirth as more frightening than an experienced midwife would.

Implementation of healthy lifestyle promotion in primary care: patients as coproducers

OBJECTIVES

To explore and theorize how patients perceive, interpret, and reactin healthy lifestyle promotion situations in primary care and to investigate patients' role in implementation of lifestyle promotion illustrated by typologies.

METHODS

Grounded theory was used to assess qualitative interview data from 22 patients with varied experience of healthy lifestyle promotion. Data were analyzed by constant comparative analysis.

RESULTS

A substantive theory of being healthy emerged from the data. The theory highlights the processes that are important for implementation before, during, and after lifestyle promotion. Three interconnected categories emerged from the data: conditions for being healthy, managing being healthy, and interactions about being healthy; these formed the core category: being healthy. A typology proposed four patient trajectories on being healthy: resigned, receivers, coworkers, and leaders.

CONCLUSION

Patients coproduced the implementation of lifestyle promotion through the degree of transparency, which was a result of patients' expectations and situation appraisals.

PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS

Different approaches are needed during lifestyle promotion depending on a variety of patient-related factors. The typology could guide practitioners in their lifestyle promotion practice.

Reflecting on the challenges of choosing and using a grounded theory approach

AIM

To explore three different approaches to grounded theory and consider some of the possible philosophical assumptions underpinning them.

BACKGROUND

Grounded theory is a comprehensive yet complex methodology that offers a procedural structure that guides the researcher. However, divergent approaches to grounded theory present dilemmas for novice researchers seeking to choose a suitable research method.

REVIEW METHODS

This is a methodology paper.

DATA SOURCES

This is a reflexive paper that explores some of the challenges experienced by a PhD student when choosing and operationalising a grounded theory approach.

DISCUSSION

Before embarking on a study, novice grounded theory researchers should examine their research beliefs to assist them in selecting the most suitable approach. This requires an insight into the approaches' philosophical assumptions, such as those pertaining to ontology and epistemology. Researchers need to be clear about the philosophical assumptions underpinning their studies and the effects that different approaches will have on the research results.

CONCLUSION

This paper presents a personal account of the journey of a novice grounded theory researcher who chose a grounded theory approach and worked within its theoretical parameters.

IMPLICATIONS FOR RESEARCH/PRACTICE

Novice grounded theory researchers need to understand the different philosophical assumptions that influence the various grounded theory approaches, before choosing one particular approach.

Examining family meetings at end of life: The model of practice in a hospice inpatient unit

OBJECTIVE

Our purpose was to rigorously examine the nature of family meetings as conducted in an inpatient hospice care unit in order to generate an inductive theoretical model.

METHOD

In this two-phase project, we first interviewed eight members of the interdisciplinary care team who participated in multiple family meetings each week. Interview questions explored why and how they conducted family meetings. Using an observation template created from these interview data, we subsequently conducted ethnographic observations during family meetings. Using the methods of grounded theory, our findings were synthesized into a theoretical model depicting the structure and process of formal family meetings within this setting.

RESULTS

The core of the family meeting was characterized by cognitive and affective elements aimed at supporting the family and facilitating quality care by clarifying the past, easing the present, and protecting the future. This inductive model was subsequently found to be highly aligned with a sense of coherence, an important influence on coping, and adaptation to the stress of a life-limiting illness.

SIGNIFICANCE OF RESULTS

Provider communication with family members is particularly critical during advanced illness and end-of-life care. The National Consensus Project clinical practice guidelines for quality palliative care list regular family meetings among the recommended practices for excellent communication during end-of-life care, but do not provide specific guidance on how and when to provide such meetings. Our findings provide a theoretical model that can inform the design of a family meeting to address family members' needs for meaningful and contextualized information, validation of their important contributions to care, and preparation for the patient's death.

Perceived control in health care: a conceptual model based on experiences of frail older adults

Frail older adults are increasingly encouraged to be in control of their health care, in Western societies. However, little is known about how they themselves perceive control in health care. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the concept of health care-related perceived control from the viewpoint of frail older adults. A qualitative interview study was conducted following a Grounded Theory approach. Thirty-two Dutch frail older adults, aged 65 and over, participated in 20 in-depth interviews (n=20) and three focus group discussions (n=12). Data were analysed according to techniques of coding and constant comparison. From this analysis constituting factors of perceived control emerged, providing elements of a conceptual model. Perceived control reflects the feeling or belief that health care is under control, which is constituted by five, either internal or external, factors: (I) self-confidence in organising professional and/or informal care, (II) self-confidence in health management in the home setting, (III) perceived support from people in the social network, (IV) perceived support from health care professionals and organisations, and (V) perceived support from (health care) infrastructure and services. Therefore, the concept does not only consist of people's own perceived efforts, but also includes the influence of external sources. Our conceptual model points out what external factors should be taken into consideration by health care professionals and policy makers when enhancing older people's perceived control. Moreover, it can serve as the basis for the development of a measurement instrument, to enable future quantitative research on health care-related perceived control among older adults.

Academic learning for specialist nurses: a grounded theory study

The aim was to explore the major concerns of specialist nurses pertaining to academic learning during their education and initial professional career. Specialist nursing education changed in tandem with the European educational reform in 2007. At the same time, greater demands were made on the healthcare services to provide evidence-based and safe patient-care. These changes have influenced specialist nursing programmes and consequently the profession. Grounded Theory guided the study. Data were collected by means of a questionnaire with open-ended questions distributed at the end of specialist nursing programmes in 2009 and 2010. Five universities were included. Further, individual, pair and group interviews were used to collect data from 12 specialist nurses, 5-14 months after graduation. A major concern for specialist nurses was that academic learning should be "meaningful" for their professional future. The specialist nurses' "meaningful academic learning process" was characterised by an ambivalence of partly believing in and partly being hesitant about the significance of academic learning and partly receiving but also lacking support. Specialist nurses were influenced by factors in two areas: curriculum and healthcare context. They felt that the outcome of contribution to professional confidence was critical in making academic learning meaningful.

When the lie is the truth: grounded theory analysis of an online support group for factitious disorder

Factitious disorder (FD) is poorly understood because of the elusiveness of sufferers. What is known is based on speculation from observational case studies and this is evident by the manifold diagnostic and treatment issues associated with FD. This study sought to fill the gap in the literature and overcome the elusiveness of FD sufferers by analysing their text communications in two online communities. One hundred twenty four posts by 57 members amounting to approximately 38,000 words were analysed using grounded theory. The analysis showed that contrary to current theories of FD, motivation is conscious and not unconscious, members did experience symptoms associated with the disorder, and they were also upset by their behaviour and wanted to recover but were deterred by fear. Furthermore, using the excessive appetitive model by Orford (2001) it is hypothesised that the characteristics of FD described by the members were congruent with those associated with addiction.

An Expert Map of Gambling Risk Perception

The purpose of the current study was to investigate the moderating or mediating role played by risk perception in decision-making, gambling behaviour, and disordered gambling aetiology. Eleven gambling expert clinicians and researchers completed a semi-structured interview derived from mental models and grounded theory methodologies. Expert interview data was used to construct a comprehensive expert mental model 'map' detailing risk-perception related factors contributing to harmful or safe gambling. Systematic overlapping processes of data gathering and analysis were used to iteratively extend, saturate, test for exception, and verify concepts and emergent themes. Findings indicated that experts considered idiosyncratic beliefs among gamblers result in overall underestimates of risk and loss, insufficient prioritization of needs, and planning and implementation of risk management strategies. Additional contextual factors influencing use of risk information (reinforcement and learning; mental states, environmental cues, ambivalence; and socio-cultural and biological variables) acted to shape risk perceptions and increase vulnerabilities to harm or disordered gambling. It was concluded that understanding the nature, extent and processes by which risk perception predisposes an individual to maintain gambling despite adverse consequences can guide the content of preventative educational responsible gambling campaigns.

How nursing home residents develop relationships with peers and staff: a grounded theory study

Social support and social relationships have been repeatedly identified as essential to nursing home resident quality of life. However, little is known about ways residents develop relationships with peers or staff.

OBJECTIVE

This study was conducted to explore the ways resident develop relationships with peers and staff in nursing homes.

DESIGN AND METHODS

Fifteen cognitively intact nursing home residents from two facilities were interviewed for this grounded theory study. Sampling, interviewing, and analysis occurred in a cyclical process with results at each stage of the study informing decisions about data collection and analysis in the next. Unstructured interviews and field observations were conducted. Data were analyzed with open, axial, and selective coding.

RESULTS

Residents developed relationships with peers and staff largely as an unintended consequence of trying to have a life in the nursing home. Having a life was a two-step process. First, life motivations (Being Self and Creating a Positive Atmosphere) influenced resident preferences for daily activities and interaction goals and subsequently their strategies for achieving and establishing both. Second, the strategies residents used for achieving their required daily activities (Passing Time and Getting Needs Met) and interaction goals then influenced the nature of interaction and the subsequent peer or staff response to these interactions. Residents defined relationships as friendly or unfriendly depending on whether peers or staff responded positively or negatively. There was considerable overlap in the ways peer and staff relationships developed and the results highlight the role of peer and staff responsiveness in relationship development.

IMPLICATIONS

The results provide possible explanations for the success of interventions in the literature designed to improve staff responsiveness to residents. The results suggest that adapting these kinds of interventions for use with peers may also be successful. The conceptual model also presents a number of opportunities for developing interventions for residents.

The core of after death care in relation to organ donation - a grounded theory study

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to investigate how intensive and critical care nurses experience and deal with after death care i.e. the period from notification of a possible brain dead person, and thereby a possible organ donor, to the time of post-mortem farewell.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Grounded theory, based on Charmaz' framework, was used to explore what characterises the ICU-nurses concerns during the process of after death and how they handle it. Data was collected from open-ended interviews.

FINDINGS

The core category: achieving a basis for organ donation through dignified and respectful care of the deceased person and the close relatives highlights the main concern of the 29 informants. This concern is categorised into four main areas: safeguarding the dignity of the deceased person, respecting the relatives, dignified and respectful care, enabling a dignified farewell.

CONCLUSION

After death care requires the provision of intense, technical, medical and nursing interventions to enable organ donation from a deceased person. It is achieved by extensive nursing efforts to preserve and safeguard the dignity of and respect for the deceased person and the close relatives, within an atmosphere of peace and tranquillity.

A shifting sense of being: a secondary analysis and comparison of two qualitative studies on young-onset dementia

The aim of the present study was to investigate and interpret metaphorical expressions of the lived experiences of everyday life in people with young-onset dementia (YOD) and to compare these findings with findings from an analysis via grounded theory to see if the second analysis adds more knowledge to the topic. In this secondary analysis of data, metaphors from 20 Norwegian men and women living with YOD were investigated. Using Steger's anthropological three-step method, three categories were identified: Sliding away, leaving traces, and all alone in the world. Comprehensively, we understood the metaphors as representing the participants’ shifting sense of being. The main findings of the study show that by analysing the data by combining and using both methods, more knowledge to the topic was added. Acknowledging metaphorical expressions as a source of knowledge, this study reflects on how metaphors can be used in therapeutic dialogue. We conclude that metaphors add to the understanding of descriptions of daily life in a more existential way, beyond the results gained from the grounded theory analysis. However, the findings from the analysis via grounded theory included aspects that we did not find when analysing the metaphors.

Seeking empowerment to comfort patients in severe pain: a grounded theory study of the nurse's perspective

BACKGROUND

Hospital patients experience significant pain, which can delay healing and increase the risk of developing chronic pain. Nurses are affected by patients' ongoing pain and may cope with consequent anxiety and helplessness by distancing themselves from such patients. Understanding nurses' responses to patients in severe pain will inform strategies to support their coping, their patients and, ultimately, their retention in the nursing workforce.

OBJECTIVES

The aim of the study was to develop a substantive theory explaining the hospital nurse's perspective of caring for patients in severe pain.

DESIGN

The study used grounded theory method.

SETTINGS

Data were collected on four acute care wards in a 610 bed Australian hospital.

PARTICIPANTS

The sample included 33 nurse participants and 11 patient participants. Selection criteria for nurse participants were those who worked in the four study wards, cared for patients who experienced severe pain, and consented to be included. Selection criteria for patient participants were those who self-reported pain at intensity of seven or more on a scale of 0-10, were aged 18 years or older, could speak and read English, and consented to be included.

METHODS

Theoretical sampling directed the collection of data using semi-structured interviews with nurses and participant observation, including structured observations of nurses who cared for patients in pain. Data were analysed using constant comparison method.

RESULTS

Nurse participants encountered a basic psychosocial problem of feelings of disempowerment when their patients experienced persisting severe pain. In response, they used a basic psychosocial process of seeking empowerment to provide comfort in order to resolve distress and exhaustion associated with disempowerment. This coping process comprised three stages: building connections; finding alternative ways to comfort; and quelling emotional turmoil.

CONCLUSIONS

The substantive theory proposed a link between the stress of nurses' disempowerment and a coping response that provides direction to support nurses' practice. Strategies indicated include enhanced communication protocols, access to advanced practice nurses, use of nonpharmacological comfort measures, utilization of ward-based pain resource nurses, and unit-specific pain management education. Further research to verify and extend the substantive theory to other settings and nursing populations is warranted.

The impact of services that offer individualised funds, shared management, person-centred relationships, and self-direction on the lived experiences of consumers with mental illness

BACKGROUND

Mental health service providers across Australia, including Western Australia (WA), have begun to offer individualised funds, shared management, person-centred and self-directed (SPS) services. No research exists on the impact of SPS services on the lived experiences of these particular consumers. This study explored the impact of a SPS service offered for the first time in WA to consumers with mental illness.

METHODS

Data on sixteen consumers' lived experiences were analysed using an abbreviated grounded theory approach. These data had been developed by the consumers, Guides (staff) and an independent evaluator, and most of it had been collected in the past prior to the commencement of the study.

RESULTS

Three over-arching categories, and related subcategories, emerged indicating that 1) access to individualised funds enabled practical and psychological benefits to consumers; 2) consistent contact in shared management and person-centred relationships enhanced the provision of timely and meaningful staff support to consumers; and 3) high quality shared management and person-centred relationships with staff and the opportunity to self-direct enabled consumers' change and growth.

CONCLUSIONS

SPS services enhanced consumers' lived experiences and enabled staff to provide and consumers to experience timely access to recovery resources, consistent contact, responsive and high quality support, and self-direction of services. In this, consumers changed, grew and achieved desired recovery experiences. The overall impact of the SPS service seemed to be founded on the goodness of fit between person characteristics of staff and consumers, which enabled rich support that provided for corrective emotional experiences. This enabled consumers to build meaningful and hopeful lives where they started to live with, and beyond, their mental illness.

[Effectiveness of institutional policies to prevent adolescent alcohol use: The view of experts and adolescents]

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study is to obtain the views of a sample of adolescents and experts on adolescence, family, school, local policies and media, regarding the effectiveness of institutional policies to prevent adolescent alcohol use.

SETTING

Four educational centers in the province of Seville. Head office of the Alcohol and Society Foundation in Madrid.

DESIGN

Qualitative study using the method proposed by Grounded theory (Glaser and Strauss, 1967).

METHODOLOGY

Data were collected from 10 discussion groups guided by semistructured interviews. The data were analyzed using Atlas ti 5 software.

PARTICIPANTS

A total of 32 national experts and 40 adolescents of both sexes aged 15 to 20 years living in the province of Seville, selected by theoretical intentional sampling.

RESULTS

The experts believed that most of the evaluated preventive actions were effective, while adolescents disputed the preventive impact of most of them. Adolescents proposed actions focused on the reduction of supply of alcohol. Experts proposed a mixed model as the most effective strategy to prevent alcohol consumption in adolescents, combining supply and demand reduction policies, depending on specific short and long term objectives.

CONCLUSIONS

We have obtained, not only an overview of what is working (or not) from the view of adolescents and experts, but also the key points that should be taken into account for designing effective prevention policies.

Maximising survival: the main concern of women with hereditary breast and ovarian cancer who undergo genetic testing for BRCA1/2

PURPOSE

Little is known about how women with hereditary breast and/or ovarian cancer who test positive for a BRCA gene manage the impact of a positive test result on their everyday lives and in the longer term. This study defined the experience and needs of women with hereditary breast and ovarian cancer and a positive BRCA test over time.

METHODS

A grounded theory approach was taken using qualitative interviews (n = 49) and reflective diaries. Data collected from December 2006 until March 2010 was analysed using the constant comparative technique to trace the development of how women manage their concerns of inherited cancer.

RESULTS

A four stage substantive theory of maximising survival was generated that defines the experience of women and how they resolve their main concerns. The process of maximising survival begins prior to genetic testing in women from high risk families as they expect to get a cancer diagnosis at some time. Women with cancer felt they had experienced the worst with a cancer diagnosis and altruistically tested for the sake of their children but a positive test result temporarily shifted their focus to decision-making around their personal health needs.

CONCLUSION

This study adds to clinical practice through raising awareness and adding insights into how women cope with living with inherited cancer risk and the personal and familial ramifications that ensue from it. A clear multi-professional structured care pathway for women from genetic testing result disclosure to undergoing risk-reducing surgery and/or surveillance should be developed.

Sustaining a "culture of silence" in the neonatal intensive care unit during nonemergency situations: a grounded theory on ensuring adherence to behavioral modification to reduce noise levels

The aim of this study was to generate a substantive theory explaining how the staff in a resource-limited neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) of a developing nation manage to ensure adherence to behavioral modification components of a noise reduction protocol (NsRP) during nonemergency situations. The study was conducted after implementation of an NsRP in a level III NICU of south India. The normal routine of the NICU is highly dynamic because of various categories of staff conducting clinical rounds followed by care-giving activities. This is unpredictably interspersed with very noisy emergency management of neonates who suddenly fall sick. In-depth interviews were conducted with 36 staff members of the NICU (20 staff nurses, six nursing aides, and 10 physicians). Group discussions were conducted with 20 staff nurses and six nursing aides. Data analysis was done in line with the reformulated grounded theory approach, which was based on inductive examination of textual information. The results of the analysis showed that the main concern was to ensure adherence to behavioral modification components of the NsRP. This was addressed by using strategies to “sustain a culture of silence in NICU during nonemergency situations” (core category). The main strategies employed were building awareness momentum, causing awareness percolation, developing a sense of ownership, expansion of caring practices, evolution of adherence, and displaying performance indicators. The “culture of silence” reconditions the existing staff and conditions new staff members joining the NICU. During emergency situations, a “noisy culture” prevailed because of pragmatic neglect of behavioral modification when life support overrode all other concerns. In addition to this, the process of operant conditioning should be formally conducted once every 18 months. The results of this study may be adapted to create similar strategies and establish context specific NsRPs in NICUs with resource constraints.

Surviving with lung cancer: medication-taking and oral targeted therapy

Oral epidermal growth factor receptor inhibitors (EGFRIs) improve survival for non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients; however, medication-taking implications are unknown. We used grounded theory to explore the process of medication-taking for NSCLC patients receiving oral EGFRIs. Thirty-two interviews were conducted for 13 participants purposively selected for gender, race/ethnicity, age, time in therapy, dose reductions, and therapy discontinuation and theoretically sampled for age and health insurance carrier. The study produced a grounded theory, Surviving with Lung Cancer, in which participants framed EGFRI therapy within recognition of NSCLC as a life-limiting illness without cure. Medication-taking was a "window" into participants' process of surviving with metastatic cancer that included deciding and preparing to take EGFRIs and treating lung cancer as a chronic condition. Our results contribute to understanding how NSCLC patients view themselves in the context of a life-limiting illness and support development of a theoretically-based intervention to improve medication-taking with EGFRIs.

Advancing adolescent maternal development: a grounded theory

OBJECTIVES

This paper reports a substantive grounded theory called the theory of Advancing Adolescent Maternal Development.

DESIGN

A grounded theory approach was used.

SAMPLE

Thirty public health nurses working with adolescent clients in a state public health nurse home visiting program volunteered to participate in this study.

RESULTS

The basic social psychological problem that emerged from the data was incomplete and at risk adolescent maternal development. Social support and public health nursing interventions are central in the problem resolution process which occurs in stages.

CONCLUSIONS

Study results can be used to inform the nursing care of pregnant and parenting adolescents.

Mechanisms which help explain implementation of evidence-based practice in residential aged care facilities: a grounded theory study

BACKGROUND

The context for the study was a nation-wide programme in Australia to implement evidence-based practice in residential aged care, in nine areas of practice, using a wide range of implementation strategies and involving 108 facilities. The study drew on the experiences of those involved in the programme to answer the question: what mechanisms influence the implementation of evidence-based practice in residential aged care and how do those mechanisms interact?

METHODS

The methodology used grounded theory from a critical realist perspective, informed by a conceptual framework that differentiates between the context, process and content of change. People were purposively sampled and invited to participate in semi-structured interviews, resulting in 44 interviews involving 51 people during 2009 and 2010. Participants had direct experience of implementation in 87 facilities, across nine areas of practice, in diverse locations. Sampling continued until data saturation was reached. The quality of the research was assessed using four criteria for judging trustworthiness: credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability.

RESULTS

Data analysis resulted in the identification of four mechanisms that accounted for what took place and participants' experiences. The core category that provided the greatest understanding of the data was the mechanism On Common Ground, comprising several constructs that formed a 'common ground' for change to occur. The mechanism Learning by Connecting recognised the ability to connect new knowledge with existing practice and knowledge, and make connections between actions and outcomes. Reconciling Competing Priorities was an ongoing mechanism whereby new practices had to compete with an existing set of constantly shifting priorities. Strategies for reconciling priorities ranged from structured approaches such as care planning to more informal arrangements such as conversations during daily work. The mechanism Exercising Agency bridged the gap between agency and action. It was the human dimension of change, both individually and collectively, that made things happen.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings are consistent with the findings of others, but fit together in a novel way and add to current knowledge about how to improve practices in residential aged care. Each of the four mechanisms is necessary but none are sufficient for implementation to occur.

A comprehensive model for optimizing empathy in person-centered care

OBJECTIVE

This study examined perspectives regarding the use of empathy within medicine and developed a model to demonstrate the components of empathy in a medical setting.

METHODS

Grounded theory guided the methodology and final theory formation. Participants included 21 medical professionals representing multiple specialty areas and employed in a teaching hospital, private practice, or clinical setting in Eastern Virginia. Processes for transcription analysis and coding preserved participant perspectives and contributed to a final model.

RESULTS

Participant interviews revealed a seven-tier model that displays the facilitative conditions and potential barriers that may impact the full expression of empathy within the medical setting. Interviews also delineated between levels of empathy and described the benefits of providing empathic care, all of which are included in the final model.

CONCLUSION

This new model of empathy describes a complex and dynamic process and conceptualizes ideal conditions for empathic treatment. The model presents concepts that may be useful in medical education, and creates new directions for empathy research.

PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS

Physicians can assess themselves along each level of the model and can use it to identify barriers as well as ensure optimal conditions for empathic treatment. This new conceptualization of empathy also has implications for medical training and directions for future research.

What constitutes a health-enabling neighborhood? A grounded theory situational analysis addressing the significance of social capital and gender

Variations in health between neighborhoods are well known and the conceptualization of social capital has contributed to an understanding of how contextual factors influence these differences. Studies show positive health-effects from living in high social capital areas, at least for some population sub-groups. The aim of this qualitative study was to understand what constitutes a 'health-enabling' neighborhood. It follows up results from a social capital survey in northern Sweden indicating that the health effects of living in a high social capital neighborhood is gendered in favor of women. A grounded theory situational analysis of eight focus group discussions--four with men and four with women--illustrated similar and different positions on how neighborhood characteristics influence health. A neighborhood, where people say hi to each other ("hi-factor") and where support between neighbors exist, were factors perceived as positive for health by all, as was a good location, neighborhood greenness and proximity to essential arenas. Women perceived freedom from demands, feeling safe and city life as additional health enabling factors. For men freedom to do what you want, a sense of belonging, and countryside life were important. To have burdensome neighbors, physical disturbances and a densely living environment were perceived as negative for health in both groups while demands for a well styled home and feeling unsafe were perceived as negative for health among women. Neighborhood social capital, together with other elements in the living environment, has fundamental influence on people's perceived health. Our findings do not confirm that social capital is more important for women than for men but that distinctive form of social capital differ in impact. Investing in physical interventions, such as planning for meeting places, constructing attractive green areas, and making neighborhoods walking-friendly, may increase human interactions that is instrumental for social capital and is likely to have health promoting effects for all.

Independent living with Duchenne muscular dystrophy and home mechanical ventilation in areas of Japan with insufficient national welfare services

In Japan, there is no national 24-hour home care system for people with severe impairments. Despite this fact, a small number of people with Duchenne muscular dystrophy on home mechanical ventilation pursue independent living. Therefore, our aim was to better understand the process by which these individuals arrived at this goal for independence (i.e., choosing to live at home in Japan instead of in special sanatoriums that provide sufficient support and care). Twenty-one participants were interviewed in 2011 and 2013. The interviews were recorded, transcribed, and analysed following a grounded theory approach. These individuals placed particular emphasis on their personal choice regarding where and how they live as well as on whom they depend. Therefore, the core element underlying participants’ goals for independent living was self-reliant independency. To improve their social inclusion, the strategies used by the participants to retain their autonomy in an underdeveloped Japanese welfare system by establishing relationships with people in their communities can prevent them from experiencing social isolation. This could serve as an example to their counterparts in other countries.

Living with extended-spectrum β-lactamase: a qualitative study of patient experiences

BACKGROUND

Extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL) is an enzyme that conveys resistance to most β-lactam antibiotics. Infections caused by bacteria producing ESBL are often difficult to treat because of general multiresistance, and hospital care may be necessary even for nonserious infections.

METHODS

The aim of this study was to increase our understanding of how infected individuals perceive their situation as "carriers" of multiresistant bacteria. A modified version of grounded theory was used to analyze 7 open interviews.

RESULTS

The analysis resulted in the core category Being thrown into the scary and unknown without a map and compass. All informants thought they had received no or insufficient information about ESBL from the health care providers. Informants who had been given some information still had many unanswered thoughts and reflections. Health care staff were lacking in knowledge about ESBL and their own fears that led to the use of extreme hygiene measures, which increased the stigma for the patient.

CONCLUSION

To manage their life situation, it is important that persons diagnosed as carriers of ESBL-producing bacteria receive adequate information from the attending doctor.

The perceived threat in adults with leukemia undergoing hematopoietic stem cell transplantation

BACKGROUND

Leukemia and hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) create physical, psychological, social, and spiritual distresses in patients. Understanding this threatening situation in adults with leukemia undergoing HSCT will assist health care professionals in providing holistic care to the patients.

OBJECTIVES

The aim of the present study was exploring the perceived threat in adults with leukemia undergoing HSCT.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

This article is part of a longitudinal qualitative study which used the grounded theory approach and was conducted in 2009-2011. Ten adults with acute leukemia scheduled for HSCT were recruited from the Hematology-Oncology Research Center and Stem Cell Transplantation, Shariati Hospital in Tehran, Iran. A series of pre-transplant and post-transplant in-depth interviews were held in the hospital's HSCT wards. Totally, 18 interviews were conducted. Three written narratives were also obtained from the participants. The Corbin and Strauss approach was used to analyze the data.

RESULTS

Perceived threat was one of the main categories that emerged from the data. This category included four subcategories, "inattention to the signs and symptoms", "doubt and anxiety", "perception of danger and time limitation" and "change of life conditions", which occurred in linear progression over time.

CONCLUSION

Suffering from leukemia and experiencing HSCT are events that are uniquely perceived by patients. This threatening situation can significantly effect perception of patients and cause temporary or permanent alterations in patients' lives. Health care professionals can help these patients by deeper understanding of their experiences and effective interventions.

An exploration of midwives' experiences and practice in relation to their assessment of maternal postnatal genital tract health

OBJECTIVE

to explore the experiences and practice of midwives in relation to the assessment of maternal postnatal genital tract health.

DESIGN

a constructionist grounded theory methodology was employed to guide the research design and processes. Ethical approval was gained from the regional research ethics committee and the research and development committee at the data collection site. Sampling was purposeful and data were collected using narrative style in depth interviews involving 14 midwives. Observations of 15 postnatal assessments involving five midwives and 15 postnatal women were also undertaken.

SETTING

a small maternity unit providing midwifery care to childbearing women in both the hospital and community setting in the North East of England.

FINDINGS

three themes were identified from the data and form the framework of the constructed grounded theory: Methods, Motivators and Modifiers. Within each theme are a number of categories and focused codes. The Methods theme summarises a range of assessment methods used by the midwives, including risk assessment, questioning and clinical observations. The Motivators theme incorporates factors which motivated how, when and why the midwives undertook genital tract assessment and includes verification, personal preferences and sensitive care. The Modifiers theme consists of factors and contexts, which facilitated or inhibited the midwives' ability to negotiate an appropriate approach to assessment including therapeutic relationship, care in context and evolving midwifery knowledge.

CONCLUSIONS

the findings of this study suggest midwives are aware of a range of assessment methods; however there was less articulation or demonstration of methods pertaining to assessment of uterine health. The motivating and modifying factors highlight midwife, woman and contextual factors, which may enhance and inhibit the midwives clinical reasoning process. The complexity of contemporary midwifery practice is illuminated as these factors conflict and create practice tensions and contradictions for the midwives. Implications include the need to ensure midwives have the knowledge regarding uterine health and the skills, affective abilities, resources and opportunities to engage women in health assessments within the complexity of contemporary practice.