Trends in phage types and antimicrobial resistance of Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis isolated from animals in Great Britain from 1990 to 2005

Surveillance data for Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis incidents and isolations from food animals in Great Britain from 1990 to 2005 were analysed to detect any trends and provide the basis for a comparison between phage types (pt) and antimicrobial sensitivity patterns in human beings and animals. During 2001 to 2005 there was a decrease in incidents involving most species except ducks. Only the numbers of incidents involving pts 6, 6a, 9b and 14b (in ducks) and pts 6a and 13a (in mammals) increased significantly during this period, whereas there were 93 per cent fewer incidents involving pt 4 than in 1990 to 2000. After adjustment for pt, the isolates from ducks were more resistant to nalidixic acid, tetracyclines and sulfonamides, and were more likely to be multiresistant than isolates from chickens. Isolates from turkeys tended to be more resistant to sulfonamides than isolates from chickens. pts 1, 5a, 6, 6a and 35 had the highest level of resistance after adjusting for species. During 2001 to 2005 there was an increase in resistance among pts 1, 6 and 7, in most cases involving nalidixic acid.

Diarrheic shellfish poisoning due to toxic mussel consumption: The first recorded outbreak in Greece

During the week of 14-20 January 2000, 120 people visited the Emergency Departments of hospitals in Thessaloniki, northern Greece, complaining of acute gastrointestinal illness after eating mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis). The symptoms indicated diarrhoeic shellfish poisoning, and the toxicity of mussels harvested from Thermaikos Gulf in Thessaloniki during the outbreak was investigated using mouse bioassays. The bioassays revealed toxicity to mice by the mussel samples; while high numbers of toxic algae Dinophysis acuminata were identified in water samples from Thermaikos Gulf. The harvesting of mussels was immediately suspended and a monitoring programme for algal blooms was established from then onwards. During a follow-up of the mussels' toxicity from January 2000 to January 2005, two more mussel samples were found positive for diarrheic shellfish poisoning: one harvested in March 2001 from the area of the outbreak (Thermaikos Gulf) and the other harvested in January 2001 from Amvrakikos Gulf in north-western Greece. However, no sporadic cases or outbreaks were reported during this period.

Intravitreal dirofilariasis: a rare ocular infection

Human ocular dirofilariasis is a zoonotic disease, rare in Europe, caused by filarial nematodes. The parasite is either encysted in a subcutaneous nodule or located under the bulbar conjunctiva. We report the case of a 62-year-old man with intravitreal dirofilariasis, which is a rare site of presentation of the nematode in the human eye. It was located in the fundus area and was surgically removed. The nematode was identified as Dirofilaria repens (D. conjuctiva) by two different Microbiology Departments, making this the fifth report of identified intravitreal dirofilariasis caused by D. repens in the relative literature.

Lack of the appropriate natural killer cell inhibitory receptors in women with spontaneous abortion

Previous studies have revealed that women with unexplained recurrent spontaneous abortions have a limited repertoire of inhibitory KI receptors (inhKIRs) and that the inhKIRs they possess do not have specificity for the human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-Cw molecules that would be expressed on trophoblast. We sought to confirm these findings by direct definition of maternal inhKIR and trophoblastic HLA-Cw allotypes on the placental material of spontaneously missed pregnancies. The study included 30 women undergoing vacuum uterine curettage for first-trimester missed pregnancy (group A; n = 15) or for elective termination of normal pregnancy (group C, n = 15). DNA extracted from isolated decidual and trophoblastic cells was used for molecular detection of maternal inhKIRs (2DL1, 2DL2, 2DL3) and fetal HLA-Cw alleles, respectively. The results revealed that in the group of women who experienced abortion, 60% did not have the full repertoire of three inhKIRs (group A vs group C; p = 0.006); that in five of 15 patients (none in the controls), no epitope matching existed between maternal inhKIRs and trophoblastic HLA-Cw alleles (group A vs group C; p = 0.01); and that more cases were found with limited epitope matching (less than three inhKIRs with specificity for fetal HLA-Cw alleles). The results provide additional evidence that in some cases of spontaneous abortions, the women lack the appropriate inhKIRs to interact with the HLA-Cw molecules on trophoblasts and to deliver signals to inhibit natural killer cell activation and protect the embryo.

The effect of short-time microwave exposures on Escherichia coli O157:H7 inoculated onto chicken meat portions and whole chickens

Small portions of fresh chicken breasts weighting 20 g each and fresh whole chickens, weighting on average 1310 g each, were inoculated with Escherichia coli O157:H7 (10(5)-10(6) cfu/g) and cooked, using two different domestic microwave ovens at full power. The chicken portions were heated for 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, and 35 s and the whole chickens for 22 min. Following exposures, viable counts and temperature measurements were performed. Although the chicken breast portions looked well-cooked after 30 s of MW heating at a mean end-point surface temperature of 69.8 degrees C, a mean concentration of 83 cfu/g E. coli O157:H7 cells was recovered. Elimination of E. coli O157:H7 cells occurred only after 35 s of MW exposure at 73.7 degrees C. When whole chickens were thoroughly cooked by MW heating, the final subsurface temperatures, measured in the thighs and wings, ranged from 60.2 degrees C to 92 degrees C and viable cells of E. coli O157:H7 were recovered from all samples of whole chicken. The results indicate that short time exposures of chicken portions to microwave heating do not eliminate E. coli O157:H7.

Human and canine leishmaniasis in asymptomatic and symptomatic population in Northwestern Greece

The occurrence of human and canine Mediterranean visceral leishmaniasis (MVL) in Northwestern Greece was investigated during an 8-year survey (1994-2001). A total of 1200 blood sera samples, collected from asymptomatic human population, and 1200 blood sera samples from asymptomatic dogs were screened for Leishmania infantum antibodies using the indirect immunofluorescence test (IFA). Also during the survey 111 human subjects and 350 canines were referred as clinically suspect cases for MVL. Significant differences (p = 0.001) were found between the prevalence of MVL in symptomatic and asymptomatic human populations (12.6 and 0.5%, respectively), but a more modest difference was observed between symptomatic and asymptomatic canines (45.4 and 24.4%, respectively). From the results, it appears that Greece has a high background of canine leishmaniasis, which is likely to be a risk factor for the emergence of human MVL.

Isolation of a rare Escherichia coli O157:H7 strain from farm animals in Greece

A strain of Escherichia coli O157:H7 was isolated from goat faeces during a surveillance study on the prevalence of this serotype of E. coli in farm animals in Greece. Three hundred and fifty one faecal samples were collected from goat, sheep and cattle breeding farms in the area of Epirus, Northwestern Greece. The E. coli O157:H7 isolate was nonsorbitol-fermenter, produced only VT2 and showed a beta-glucuronidase positive activity, a rather unusual biochemical feature for the E. coli O157:H7 serotype. No other strain of E. coli O157:H7 was isolated from the faecal samples of the rest farm animals examined, thus the overall prevalence of animal carriage was found to be 0.2%. The findings also indicate that goats can be a reservoir of E. coli O157:H7 and goat milk, dairy products and meat may serve as a vehicle for the pathogen transmission to humans.

Application of a Polymerase Chain Reaction Enzyme Immunoassay in Peripheral Whole Blood and Serum Specimens for Diagnosis of Acute Human Brucellosis

A simple polymerase chain reaction-enzyme immunoassay (PCR-EIA) was employed for the rapid laboratory diagnosis of human brucellosis directly from peripheral blood. Whole blood and serum specimens were collected from 243 patients with acute brucellosis as determined by blood culture, serological tests, and the patients' clinical characteristics and from a control group of 50 healthy individuals. Diagnosis of brucellosis was established in 179 cases by isolation of Brucella spp. in blood culture and in 64 cases by clinical signs and serological investigation. Following the amplification of a 223-bp sequence of a gene that codes for the synthesis of an immunogenic membrane protein specific for the Brucella genus, the amplified product was detected in a microtiter plate by hybridization. Two hundred forty-one of the 243 patients tested had detectable Brucella DNA in either whole blood or serum specimens: 149 (61.3%) patients were positive in both whole blood and serum specimens, 43 (17.7%) were positive in serum specimens only, and 49 (20.2%) were positive in whole blood specimens only. The diagnostic specificity of the PCR-EIA assay for both specimen categories was 100%, while the sensitivity was 81.5% for whole blood specimens, 79% for serum specimens, and 99.2% for whole blood and serum specimens combined. The results suggest that the detection of Brucella DNA in whole blood and serum specimens by PCR-EIA assay is a sensitive and specific method that could assist the rapid and accurate diagnosis of acute human brucellosis.

Isolation of Escherichia coli O157:H7 from foods in Greece

The presence of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in various foods of animal origin was surveyed in northwestern Greece. Six hundred samples of unpasteurized cows', ewes' and goats' milk, raw minced meat, uncooked frozen beef hamburgers, sandwiches (containing ham or turkey, mixed vegetable salad with mayonnaise and lettuce), fresh traditional Greek pork sausages and swine intestines appropriate for traditional Greek kokoretsi were assayed for E. coli serogroup O157:H7 using the standard cultural method and the immunomagnetic separation technique. The pathogen was detected in 1 out of 100 (1.0%) samples of ewes' milk, 1 out of 75 (1.3%) fresh sausages and 1 out of 50 (2.0%) swine intestines prepared for kokoretsi. The isolated strains were nonsorbitol fermenters, MUG-negative, O157 agglutinating, verotoxin-producing and carried both VT1 and VT2 genes. The three isolated strains were tested for antibiotic resistance and were found to be susceptible to eight antimicrobial agents (ampicillin, chloramphenicol, kanamycin, nalidixic acid, norfloxacin, streptomycin, sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim and tetracycline).

Platinum(II) complexes with 2-acetyl pyridine thiosemicarbazone. Synthesis, crystal structure, spectral properties, antimicrobial and antitumour activity

An interesting series of new platinum complexes has been synthesized by the reaction of Na(2)PtCl(4) with 2-acetyl pyridine thiosemicarbazone, HAcTsc. The new complexes, [Pt(AcTsc)Cl], [Pt(HAcTsc)(2)]Cl(2) and [Pt(AcTsc)(2)], have been characterized by elemental analyses and spectroscopic studies. The crystal structure of the complex [Pt(AcTsc)Cl] has been solved by single-crystal X-ray diffraction. The anion of HAcTsc coordinates in a planar conformation to the central platinum(II) through the pyridyl N, azomethine N and thiolato S atoms. Double intermolecular hydrogen bonds (NH-Cl), pi-pi and weak Pt-Pt and Pt-pi contacts lead to aggregation and to a two-dimensional supramolecular assembly. The antibacterial and antifungal effect of the novel platinum(II) complexes and the related palladium(II) complexes, [Pd(AcTsc)Cl], [Pd(HAcTsc)(2)]Cl(2) and [Pd(AcTsc)(2)], were studied in vitro. The complexes were found to have a completely lethal effect on Gram+ bacteria, while the same complexes showed no bactericidal effect on Gram- bacteria. Additionally, the complexes [Pt(AcTsc)(2)] and [Pd(AcTsc)(2)] showed effective antifungal activity towards yeast. Among these compounds [33], the most effective in inducing antitumour and cytogenetic effects are the complexes [Pt(AcTsc)(2)] and [Pd(AcTsc)(2)] while the rest, display marginal cytogenetic and antitumour effects.

Detection of mycobacteria in clinical specimen using the mycobacteria growth indicator tube (MGIT) and the Lowenstein Jensen medium

The recovery rates of mycobacteria strains isolated from 1200 clinical specimens using the mycobacteria growth indicator tube (MGIT) system and the conventional Lowenstein Jensen medium (LJ) were assessed. Of the 87 mycobacterial isolates recovered, 54 belonged to the M. tuberculosis complex (MTB) and 33 to the non-tuberculosis complex (NTM). MGIT recovered 78 (89.65%) mycobacteria isolates (51 MTB (94.44%) and 27 NTM (81.81%) and LJ recovered 70 (80.46%) mycobacteria isolates (49 MTB (90.74%) and 21 NTM (63.63%). Sixty one (70.1%) of the total mycobacteria isolates were recovered with both systems (46 (85.2%) MTB and 15 (45.5%) NTM). No significant difference was found between MGIT and LJ (p > 0.05) in both MTB and NTM recoveries. The average detection time for MTB was significantly shorter with MGIT than with LJ, in both the smear-positive specimens (8 vs 30 days: p < 0.0001) and smear-negative specimens (15 vs 30 days: p < 0.001). The average detection time of NTM was also shorter for MGIT (15 vs 30 days: p < 0.0001). However, the contamination rate was higher in MGIT (8.5%) than in LJ (3%). The results suggest that the use of MGIT contributes to a more rapid and effective diagnosis of mycobacterial infections particularly when combined with the classical LJ.

Rapid Identification of Clostridium perfringens in animal feedstuffs

Clostridium perfringens is a common contaminant of grains and meals used for animal feeding and its presence in feedstuffs has been implicated in outbreaks of foodborne poisoning in farm animals. In order to evaluate a new rapid procedure for C. perfringens isolation and identification, we examined qualitatively 120 duplicate samples of feedstuffs used for farm animal and poultry feeding, using the Lactose-Sulfite broth (LS) proposed for rapid C. perfringens detection and the conventional Cooked Meat Medium (CMM). The results suggest that LS medium is fairly successful in the detection of C. perfringens vegetative cells and spores, despite the presence of the bacterial and fungal flora normally found in animal feedstuffs.

Bacterial strains isolated from eggs and their resistance to currently used antibiotics: is there a health hazard for consumers?

In order to study the putative transfer of antibiotic resistance from poultry to humans, hens' eggs were examined for the presence of various pathogens. Staphylococcus, Enterobacter, Escherichia, Proteus and Pseudomonas spp. were the most frequently isolated genera. Sensitivity tests, performed with the Kirby-Bauer technique, showed the presence of resistant strains of Staphylococcus aureus (to penicillin-G, tetracycline, erythromycin, clindamycin, cefalosporins, oxacillin, gentamycin, chloramphenicol and tobramycin), Enterococcus faecalis (to ampicillin, ciprofloxacin, clindamycin, gentamycin and tetracyclin), Escherichia coli (to tetracycline, erythromycin, ampicillin and cefalosporins), Enterobacter cloacae (to ampicillin, amoxycillin plus clavunalic acid, erythromycin and tetracycline), Pseudomonas stutzeri (to erythromycin and chlorampenicol) and Citrobacter freundii (to ampicillin, amoxycillin plus clavunalic acid, cefalosporins and co-trimoxazole).

[Urinary infection in urolithiasis patients in the Epirus district (northeastern Greece)]

The relationship between renal stones and urinary tract infection is frequent but not well-known. In this study, urinary tract infection was found in 12% of renal stone formers. It is four times more common in females than in males. Urea splitting bacteria (Proteus, Klebsiella, Staphylococcus and Pyocyaneus) lead to stone formation. They were identified in 72% of cases. Proteus was predominant and the organism most frequently found in staghorn stone formers. Other non urea-splitting bacteria (E. coli, Enterobacter, Streptococcus) were observed in 25% to 30% of cases. The percentage of the various bacteria varies according to the degree of resistance to therapy and the patients sex.

Survival of enterobacteria in liquid cultures during microwave radiation and conventional heating

Bacteria in food have been reported to survive in larger numbers after processing by microwave radiation than after conventional processing. The bactericidal effect of a domestic microwave oven (SHARP R-7280) on certain pathogenic enterobacteria species was investigated in vitro, in comparison with conventional heating (boiling). The death rates of different nosocomial strains of Escherichia coli, Salmonella sofia, Salmonella enteritidis, Proteus mirabilis and Pseudomonas aeruginosa were tested. The microwave oven and the conventional heating system used were both calibrated in order to calculate temperatures from exposure times. For each strain duplicate samples of 25 ml of pure culture with concentrations at least 10(6) cfu/ml were exposed to microwave radiation. An equal number of samples of the same volume and concentration were exposed to conventional heating. Subsequently all samples were examined qualitatively and quantitatively following standard microbiological procedures. The results indicate that microwaves have an efficient bactericidal effect on the enterobacteria in liquid cultures.

Detection of chlamydia trachomatis antigen using the direct immunofluorescence technique: a four year survey in Northwestern Greece

The prevalence of Chlamydia trachomatis antigen in patients visiting the University Hospital of Ioannina, North-western Greece during 1991-1993 is surveyed. Six hundred and twenty two (622) samples (scrapings from the cervix, uretra and conjunctiva) were examined for the detenction of C. trachomatis antigen using the direct immunofluorescence technique (DIF). From the 662 samples examined by DIF, 579 were found negative (93%) and 43 positive (7%).

Behavior of Salmonella enteritidis During the Manufacture, Ripening, and Storage of Feta Cheese Made from Unpasteurized Ewe's Milk

The ability of Salmonella enteritidis to grow during the Feta cheese-making process and to survive during ripening and storage of the cheese was investigated. Unpasteurized whole ewe's milk was inoculated to contain 10⁶-10⁷ CFU/ml of S. enteritidis and was processed into Feta cheese following standard procedures. All samples were examined for S. enteritidis both quantitatively and qualitatively, while moisture, fat, water activity, and pH values were also measured. S. enteritidis was enumerated in duplicate samples by surface plating on SS agar. Selected Salmonella colonies were identified biochemically and serologically. The enumerations have shown that S. enteritidis was entrapped in curd with the population increasing to a maximum during the First 48 h. Thereafter, the growth of S. enteritidis was inhibited and surviving cells persisted in the curd for up to 20 d.

Survival of Salmonella enteritidis during the manufacture of feta cheese made of pasteurized ewe's milk

The behaviour of Salmonella enteritidis during the Feta cheese making process was investigated. Two lots of pasteurized whole ewe's milk were inoculated to contain 10(6) cfu/ml of S. enteritidis (strain AS1 and AS2) and were processed into Feta cheese following standard procedures. All samples were examined for S. enteritidis both quantitatively and qualitatively, while moisture, fat, water activity and pH were also measured. S. enteritidis was enumerated in duplicate samples by surface plating on SS agar. Selected salmonella-like colonies were identified biochemically and serologically. The enumerations have shown that S. enteritidis was initially entrapped in the curd. Then the growth of S. enteritidis gradually decreased and no Salmonellae were quantitatively enumerated after the 23rd day. However S. enteritidis was detected qualitatively in samples taken until the 38th day.

An Assessment of Rappaport-Vassiliadis Medium Based on Growth Kinetics

The growth of eleven Salmonella serotypes cultured in modified Rappaport-Vassiliadis medium was compared with the growth in selenite broth and in nutrient broth. The growth of other enterobacteria in the three media was also studied. The mean generation times of all the serotypes were calculated by fitting the experimental data to the exponential growth law. The results showed that Rappaport-Vassiliadis medium sustained the growth of nine Salmonella serotypes and proved more successful in limiting the growth of other enterobacteria than did the selenite or nutrient broths.