Sex pheromones in snakes

The majority of pheromones identified to date are insect pheromones, which are volatile in nature. Identification of nonvolatile pheromones have been relatively rare, especially in vertebrates. Male and female garter snakes use pheromones to mediate sexual behavior. The female sex attractiveness pheromone of the Canadian red-sided garter snake, Thamnophis sirtalis parietalis, consists of a novel series of nonvolatile saturated and monounsaturated long-chain methyl ketones, whereas the male sex recognition pheromone contains squalene. These compounds were isolated, identified, and partially synthesized, and field tests show them to be biologically active.

Identification of a Neuropeptide Hormone That Regulates Sex Pheromone Production in Female Moths

A pheromone biosynthesis activating neuropeptide (PBAN) hormone that controls sex pheromone production in female moths was identified from the brain-subesophageal ganglion complexes of the adult corn earworm, Heliothis zea. PBAN has 33 amino acid residues and a molecular weight of 3900. Its amino acid sequence has no significant homology with any of the fully characterized peptide hormones. The synthetic peptide, at a dose of between 2 and 4 picomoles, induced production of a normal quantity of sex pheromone in ligated H. zea females. The peptide also induced pheromone production in six other species of moths, thus indicating that this or similar peptides may be responsible for the regulation of pheromone production in moths.

Comparison of 252Cf plasma desorption mass spectrometry and fast atom bombardment mass spectrometry in identification of simple monoglucosyl conjugates

The fast atom bombardment (glycerol) and 252Cf plasma desorption mass spectra of 16 simple monoglucosyl conjugates have been compared. Plasma desorption mass spectrometry, in general, has been found to be the superior technique for characterizing these low molecular weight conjugates because of the relative absence of interfering matrix peaks.

Isolation and characterization of a hydroxyacid-oxoacid transhydrogenase from rat kidney mitochondria

A transhydrogenase that catalyzes the oxoacid-dependent oxidation of specific hydroxyacids has been found in rat kidney, liver, and brain. The hydroxyacids that have been found to be substrates for this enzyme are gamma-hydroxybutyrate, D-alpha-hydroxyglutarate, and L-beta-hydroxybutyrate. The oxoacids that are the best substrates for this enzyme are alpha-ketoglutarate and succinic semialdehyde; alpha-ketoadipate and oxalacetate are also substrates. This enzyme is located in the mitochondrial fraction of the cell and is not dependent on added NAD+ or NADP+.

Amorphous water-soluble cyclodextrin derivatives: 2-hydroxyethyl, 3-hydroxypropyl, 2-hydroxyisobutyl, and carboxamidomethyl derivatives of beta-cyclodextrin

The pharmaceutical usefulness of natural, crystalline cyclodextrins can be improved by chemical conversions into water-soluble, amorphous mixtures of their derivatives. Reaction of beta-cyclodextrin with 2-chloroethanol, 3-chloropropanol, isobutylene oxide, or iodoacetamide yielded the title compounds. Distributions of the substitution degree were close to symmetrical and relatively narrow. The average substitution degrees increased with the amount of alkylating reagent used in the preparation. The number of components (half-width of distribution) increased with increasing average substitution degree. Further, distributions of the substitution degree were measured in glucose derivatives after hydrolysis of 2-hydroxyethyl, 2-hydroxypropyl, and 2-hydroxyisobutyl-beta-cyclodextrin. The results show an uneven distribution of substituents around the cyclodextrins, suggesting that growth of oligoglycol side chains and/or clustering of substituents on one glucose residue occurs.

2-Hydroxypropyldigitonin: synthesis and properties of preparations differing in degree of substitution

Reaction of propylene oxide with digitonin in strong aqueous alkali yielded water soluble, nontoxic solubilizers of drugs and hormones, the molecular composition of which could be fully deduced from plasma desorption mass spectrometry data. Preparations with average degrees of substitution ranging from 0.7 to 4.5 were investigated, and all the distributions of degrees of substitution observed were relatively narrow and symmetrical; thus, the reactivity of primary and secondary hydroxyls of saponin and of its conversion products had to be quite similar. The effects of the average degree of substitution of 2-hydroxypropyldigitonins on the formation of micelles and on the solubilization of four drugs into aqueous solutions were found to be minor. On the other hand, the ability to hemolyze erythrocytes decreased sharply with an increasing average degree of substitution.

o-Aminoacetophenone, a pheromone that repels honeybees (Apis mellifera L.)

o-Aminoacetophenone is a pheromone produced by virgin honeybee queens and released with feces. In small social groups, the pheromone repels and is used to terminate agonistic interactions between queens and workers.

Crisamicin C, a new isochromanequinone antibiotic. Isolation, structure determination, and biosynthesis

Micromonospora purpureochromogenes subsp. halotolerans was found to produce crisamicin C, a novel antibiotic, together with crisamicin A. Crisamicin C was purified by silica gel column chromatography and its physico-chemical properties, structure and biosynthesis were studied. Crisamicin C, mp 260 degrees C (dec), showed UV maxima at 392 (epsilon 9,497), 261 (epsilon 32,959) and 232 nm (epsilon 24,623) in CH3CN, and gave an IR spectrum with absorbances at 1782 (lactone), 1705 and 1655 (quinone) cm-1. Crisamicin C plasma desorption mass spectrometry (PD-MS) m/z 615.9 [M + H)+, hydroquinone) was 16 amu higher than crisamicin A PD-MS m/z 600 [M + H)+, hydroquinone) suggesting that the two antibiotics differ by one additional oxygen in crisamicin C. Analysis of 1H and 13C NMR spectra, in comparison with those of crisamicin A, indicated that crisamicin C was the 4'a, 10'a epoxide derivative of crisamicin A. Carbon-thirteen labeled acetate feeding experiments were used to confirm the positions of the epoxide and other structural features. Crisamicin C was a more potent antibiotic than crisamicin A, but shared the same spectrum of antimicrobial activity (Gram-positive only).

Reaction of cyclodextrins with propylene oxide or with glycidol: analysis of product distribution

Reaction of cyclomalto-hexaose, -heptaose, or -octaose with propylene oxide in strong aqueous alkali gave products in which distribution of the degrees of substitution was relatively narrow and nearly symmetrical, and increased with the average degree of substitution. When an equimolar mixture of cyclomalto-hexaose, heptaose, or -octaose was used, the average degrees of substitution of all three carbohydrates were close to each other. These findings indicate that the reactivities of the hydroxyl groups of cyclomalto-hexaose, -heptaose, or -octaose, and of all their (2-hydroxypropyl) ethers formed in the reactions, are quite similar. Reaction of cyclomaltoheptaose with glycidol also yielded a product having a narrow distribution of degree of substitution, but which was slightly skewed towards the higher degrees. Thus, as it proceeds, this etherification leads to products having higher reactivity towards the epoxide.

Detection of trehalose monomycolate in Mycobacterium leprae grown in armadillo tissues

Trehalose-6-monomycolate (TMM) was isolated from the lipids of armadillo-derived Mycobacterium leprae. Only meagre amounts of this glycolipid were recovered, but its structure was unequivocally established. Only alpha-mycolates were detected in the TMM by 252Cf plasma desorption mass spectrometry. Electron impact mass spectrometry showed the alpha branch to be principally C20. Trehalose dimycolate (cord factor) was not detectable. Since we have also found TMM in M. lepraemurium and in every Mycobacterium species so far examined, we suggest that this glycolipid is truly ubiquitous amongst mycobacteria.

Purification of a benzodiazepine from bovine brain and detection of benzodiazepine-like immunoreactivity in human brain

An endogenous brain substance that binds to the central-type benzodiazepine receptors with agonist properties is present in both rat and bovine brains. This substance has been purified to homogeneity from bovine brain by immunoaffinity chromatography on immobilized monoclonal anti-benzodiazepine antibody followed by gel filtration on Sephadex G-25 and two reversed-phase HPLC steps. The purified substance was characterized as the benzodiazepine N-desmethyldiazepam (nordiazepam). The techniques used for the identification were mass spectrometry, HPLC, spectrophotometry, benzodiazepine receptor binding, and immunological techniques. Benzodiazepine-like immunoreactivity was also found in all the human brains tested, including six brains that had been stored in paraffin since 1940, fifteen years before the first synthesis of benzodiazepines. These results show that benzodiazepine-like molecules of natural origin--and possibly benzodiazepines themselves--are present in human and other mammalian brains.

Californium-252 plasma desorption mass spectrometry of skin lipids. Positive and negative ions formed by attachment processes

Californium-252 plasma desorption mass spectra have been run on a series of typical lipids found in skin, including a fatty acid, a methyl and wax ester, a mono-, di- and triglyceride and an anhydride, in a effort to discover the nature of peaks caused by fingerprint contamination of the sample holders. The triglyceride was identified as the source, and peaks found by reattachment of abundant fragment ions to the original lipid were noted in several cases.

Separation of the components of commercial digitonin using high-performance liquid chromatography and centrifugal countercurrent chromatography. Identification of the products by californium-252 plasma desorption mass spectrometry

Commercial digitonin has been separated into its components using high-performance liquid chromatography and centrifugal countercurrent chromatography. The individual glucosides have been identified by californium-252 plasma desorption mass spectrometry, occasionally supplemented by hydrolysis and analysis of the liberated sugars and aglycones. Mass spectra of commercial digitonin that have appeared in the literature are discussed in the light of their complex nature. A new glycoside of molecular weight 1035 is described and a structure proposed.

Predominant osmotically active organic solutes in rat and rabbit renal medullas

The mechanism that concentrates the urine to an osmolality several times that of systemic plasma results in high concentrations of solutes (particularly NaCl and urea) in extracellular fluid of renal medulla, but not in the labyrinth of the renal cortex. Intracellular and extracellular osmolality must be equal in animals, but the known intracellular levels of Na and K salts and urea in renal medullas are much too low to balance the high extracellular osmolality. The purpose of these studies was to identify the other intracellular osmolytes that must be present. Cortexes and medullas from rabbit and rat kidneys were analyzed by proton nuclear magnetic resonance, mass spectrometry, and chemical assays to determine the identity and amount of organic solutes. Large amounts of glycerophosphorylcholine, betaine, sorbitol, and inositol were found in both species localized almost exclusively to the inner medulla. In rabbits during antidiuresis glycerophosphorylcholine, betaine, and sorbitol were present in the inner medulla, at concentrations of 21.1, 34.8, and 20.8 mumol/g wet weight, respectively, but were not detected in the cortex. Inositol was present in rabbit inner medulla at 10.7 mumol/g wet weight and was also present in the cortex, but at lower concentration. None of the above metabolites was present in measurable amounts in urine or peripheral plasma. The accumulation in the cells of the inner medulla of relatively large amounts of betaine, sorbitol, glycerophosphorylcholine and inositol during antidiuresis suggests that they may play a significant role in the maintenance of intracellular osmotic balance.

Alternative adherence marker schemes

Various possible adherence markers are mentioned, including inert particulate matter, soluble and insoluble dyes, polymer attached dyes, spin-labeled substances, and radioactive and stable isotope tracers. Methods for detection might include nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), electron spin resonance (ESR), x-ray, gas chromatography, and simple fluorescence or absorption. Emphasis is placed on systems involving safety, reliability, and redundancy. No clear-cut superiority of any method is apparent.

Defense in Thrips: Forbidding Fruitiness of a Lactone

Expulsion of anal fluid from the upturned abdomen was demonstrated to serve a defensive function in the thrips Bagnalliella yuccae. An allomone in the anal exudate was identified as gamma-decalactone, a fruity-smelling compound that repelled potential predators. Chemical defenses may contribute to the ability of thrips to maintain large aggregations.

Human alveolar macrophage-derived chemotactic factor for neutrophils. Stimuli and partial characterization

The presence of neutrophils within the lung is a characteristic feature of a variety of lung diseases. To evaluate the potential role of alveolar macrophages in modulating the migration of neutrophils to the lung, normal human alveolar macrophages obtained from volunteers by bronchopulmonary lavage, were exposed for various periods of time in vitro to heat-killed microorganisms, and noninfectious particulates, immune complexes, and the macrophage supernates were evaluated for chemotactic activity. The microorganisms, noninfectious particulates, and immune complexes were chosen as stimuli for alveolar macrophages because these stimuli are representative of a spectrum of pathogenic agents that cause neutrophil accumulation in the lower respiratory tract. After incubation with each of these stimuli, alveolar macrophages released low molecular weight (400-600) chemotactic factor(s) (alveolar macrophage-derived chemotactic factor[s] [AMCF]) with relatively more activity for neutrophils than monocytes or eosinophils. Checker-board analysis of the AMCF revealed that the factor was primarily chemotactic and not chemokinetic for neutrophils. The selectivity for neutrophils vs. monocytes could not be explained by a selective deactivation of monocytes, because the AMCF was more potent in deactivating neutrophils than monocytes. Partial characterization of AMCF demonstrated it was heterogeneous with the following features: (a) stable to heating at 56 and 100 degrees C for 30 min; (b) stable over a pH range of 1.0 to 12.0 for 60 min; (c) stable after exposure to trypsin, papain, chymotrypsin, collagenase, and elastase; (d) partially inhibited by serum chemotactic factor inhibitor(s); (e) two major isoelectric points (pI 7.6 and 5.2); and (f) partially extractable into ethyl acetate, ether, and hexane. Although AMCF was, at least, partially lipid in nature, it did not appear to be similar to previously described lipid chemotactic factors (e.g., hydroxy-derivatives of 5,8,10,14-eicosatetraenoic acid); analysis by gas chromatography-mass spectrophotometry of AMCF extracted into ethyl acetate did not reveal the presence of 5,8,10,14-eicosatetraenoic acid. The macrophage supernates containing the AMCF also stimulated normal human neutrophils to release lysozyme and lactoferrin but not lactate dehydrogenase. These studies suggest that a wide variety of potentially pathogenic stimuli induce normal alveolar macrophages to generate a low molecular weight chemotactic factor(s) that preferentially attracts neutrophils. Because alveolar macrophages are normal residents of alveoli, it is likely that by releasing this factor(s) macrophages play a significant role in amplifying the inflammatory processes seen in many acute and chronic lung diseases.

Metabolism of putrescine to 5-hydroxy-2-pyrrolidone via 2-pyrrolidone

Incubation of 2-[14C]pyrrolidone with sliced rat liver and analysis of the incubation medium by silica gel chromatography revealed that 2-[14C]pyrrolidone is metabolized to an unknown. It was previously shown by Lundgren and Hankins ((Lundgren, D.W, and Hankins, J. (1978) J. Biol. Chem. 253, 7130-7133) that slices of rat liver readily synthesized 2-pyrrolidone from putrescine. The unknown metabolite was partially purified by methanol/chloroform extraction, activated charcoal column chromatography, and two-dimensional thin layer chromatography on silica gel plates. The 2-pyrrolidone metabolite was derivatized with bis(trimethylsilyl)trifluroacetamide and analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The mass of the molecular ion (245) and fragment ions suggests that the 2-pyrrolidone metabolite is 5-hydroxy-2-pyrrolidone. The mass spectrum of synthetic 5-hydroxy-2-pyrrolidone was identical to that of the unknown metabolite. Synthetic 5-hydroxy-2-[3H]pyrrolidone co-chromatographed on silica gel sheets with the unknown 2-[14C]pyrrolidone metabolite obtained directly from incubation media. Under appropriate conditions (pH 7.5, no acid treatment of medium), putrescine is metabolized to 5-hydroxy-2-pyrrolidone via 2-pyrrolidone. Several effector compounds, but not necessarily the same ones, inhibit or enhance, or both, the conversion of putrescine to 2-pyrrolidone and of 2-pyrrolidone to 5-hydroxy-2-pyrrolidone. This is the first demonstration of the biosynthesis of 5-hydroxy-2-pyrrolidone.

Anthophora Bees: Unusual Glycerides from Maternal Dufour's Glands Serve as Larval Food and Cell Lining

The Dufour's gland of Anthophora abrupta, a solitary bee, secretes a complex mixture of liquid triglycerides containing one long-chain and two shortchain fatty acids. This is applied inside the earthen brood cells and added to the provision, where it is converted, perhaps by enzymes from the bee's saliva or gut, to solid diglycerides that are later eaten by the bee larvae. This use of Dufour's gland secretion as food and its nutritive function are reminiscent of the royal jelly secreted by honey bees.

Proteins in a Nonvenomous Defensive Secretion: Biosynthetic Significance

In common with many arthropods, the true bug, Leptoglossus phyllopus, when disturbed, emits a two-phase secretion that consists of an organic phase and an aqueous phase. The organic phase is a mixture of highly reactive low-molecular-weight compounds, analogous to those produced by other arthropods, and is deterrent to many kinds of predators. The aqueous phase, heretofore ignored in most analyses of arthropod defensive secretions, contains proteins. Even though the secretion is not injected, the proteins enzymatically catalyze the derivation of the most reactive components within the impermeable cuticular storage reservoir and, thus, constitute part of the defensive system that appears to be commonly used by arthropods producing irritating chemicals.

Isolation and characterization of a unique galactoside from male Drosophila melanogaster

A ninhydrin-positive compound with presumptive hormonal activity, previously considered to be a peptide (Chen, P.S., and Bühler, R. (1970), J. Insect Physiol. 16, 615), has been isolated from adult male Drosophila melanogaster. Chromatographic analysis of the acid-hydrolyzed material revealed the presence of ethanolamine, phosphorus, galactose, and glycerol. Chemical analysis showed these to be present in equimolar amounts. Based on its phosphorus content, the nonreducing material took up 2 equiv of periodate, and released 1 equiv of formaldehyde. Characterization of the compound as 1-O-(4-O-(2-aminoethyl phosphate)-beta-D-galactopyranosyl)-x-glycerol was achieved by gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy and 1H and 31P NMR using model compounds. In vivo synthesis from labeled precursors is in accord with the proposed structure.

Formation of glutathione conjugates of prostaglandin A1 in human red blood cells

When prostaglandin A1 was incubated with a Tris/saline suspension of washed human red blood cells, a substantial amount was converted to polar metabolites. These were purified by solvent extraction, XAD-2 column, and cellulose thin layer chromatography and characterized by chromatography, amino acid analysis, and mass spectrometry. The polar metabolites were a mixture of two glutathione conjugates of prostaglandin A1. The first (approximately 40%) was identical with the product of the nonenzymic reaction of glutathione with prostaglandin A1. The second (approximately 60%) was formed from the first by reduction of the 9-keto group of the prostaglandin moiety. The latter compound was also prepared synthetically by treating the glutathione conjugate of prostaglandin A1 with sodium borohydride.

Chemical structure and purity of dyes used in lymphograms

Because of confusion in the literature, studies were performed on several samples of patent blue violet and Alphazurine 2G to determine their chemical structure and purity. Nuclear magnetic resonance studies revealed that three distinct compounds and one mixture had all been labeled as the same compound. The purity of the dyes varied from batch to batch, as shown by thin-layer chromatography. Caution should be exercised in the use of these dyes for lymphograms.

Accumulation of oxygenated steryl esters in Wolman's disease

7alpha- and 7beta-hydroxycholesteryl esters, 7-ketocholesteryl esters, and 5,6alpha- and 5,6beta-epoxycholesteryl esters have been identified in tissues of patients affected by Wolman's disease. Their structural identities were determined by mass spectroscopy and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and confirmed by chemical synthesis. It is postulated that cholesteryl ester hydrolase deficiency in Wolman's disease might lead to accumulation of oxygenated steryl esters in vivo and impairment of bile acid formation.