Safety evaluation of the food enzyme pullulanase from Pullulanibacillus naganoensis strain AE-PL

The food enzyme considered in this opinion is a pullulanase (pullulan 6-α-glucanohydrolase; EC 3.2.1.41) produced with a non-genetically modified Pullulanibacillus naganoensis (strain AE-PL) by Amano Enzyme Inc. (Japan). The pullulanase food enzyme is intended to be used in starch processing for the production of glucose syrups. Since residual amounts of total organic solid (TOS) in glucose syrups are removed by filtration and purification during starch processing, dietary exposure assessment was not performed. Genotoxicity tests made with the food enzyme indicated no genotoxic potential. A repeated dose 90-day oral toxicity study in rodents, carried out with the food enzyme, showed minor effects that were considered to be of no biological relevance. The allergenicity was evaluated by comparing the amino acid sequence to those of known allergens and no match was found. The Panel considered that there are no indications for food allergic reactions to dietary intake of this food enzyme. Based on the removal of residual amounts of TOS from glucose syrups, consumer exposure is not expected. In addition, the safety of the manufacturing process, the compositional and biochemical data lead the Panel to conclude that the food enzyme pullulanase from P. naganoensis (strain AE-PL) does not give rise to safety concerns under the intended conditions of use.

Safety assessment of the substance [3-(2,3-epoxypropoxy)propyl]trimethoxy silane, for use in food contact materials

This scientific opinion of the EFSA Panel on Food Contact Materials, Enzymes, Flavourings and Processing Aids (CEF Panel) deals with the safety evaluation of [3-(2,3-epoxypropoxy)propyl]trimethoxy silane as a component for sizing glass fibres used for manufacturing glass-fibre-reinforced plastics. The substance is typically applied at up to around 0.2% related to the final plastic. The resulting food contact materials are intended for various scenarios of use, i.e. long-term contact at ambient temperature (e.g. storage tanks) or short-term contact at elevated temperatures (e.g. kitchen utensils). In extracts of treated fibres, neither the substance was detectable at 10 μg/kg fibre nor its hydrolysis product and oligomers at 60 μg/kg fibre. Based on the detection limits, modelling for the plastics and scenarios of intended use resulted in maximum migrations of 0.05 μg/kg food for the substance and 0.15 μg/kg food for the sum of the reaction products. The Panel concludes that the substance has a genotoxic potential. This may also apply to some of its reaction products which contain the epoxy function. However, due to the very low exposure, if any, [3-(2,3-epoxypropoxy)propyl]trimethoxy silane does not raise safety concern if used as a component of sizing agents to treat glass fibres imbedded into low diffusivity plastics (polyethylene terephthalate, polycarbonate, polybutylene terephthalate, thermoset polyesters and epoxy bisphenol vinylester) in contact with all foodstuffs. In addition, the residues in the treated glass fibres must not be detectable at 10 μg/kg for the substance and 60 μg/kg for each of the reaction products (hydrolysed monomers and epoxy-containing cyclic dimer, trimer and tetramer).

Scientific opinion of Flavouring Group Evaluation 502 (FGE.502): grill flavour 'Grillin' 5078'

The EFSA Panel on Food Contact Materials, Enzymes, Flavourings and Processing Aids (CEF Panel) was requested to deliver a scientific opinion on the implication for human health of the product Grillin’ 5078 [FL‐no: 21.003] in the Flavouring Group Evaluation 502, according to Regulation (EC) No 1331/2008 and Regulation (EC) No 1334/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council. The product is derived from heat‐treated high oleic sunflower oil and intended to be used as a food flavouring with charbroiled or grilled aroma in a wide variety of food categories either in liquid or powder form. Information on manufacturing and compositional data was considered adequate to show the reproducibility of the production process. However, the Panel noted that a considerable amount of the non‐volatile fraction of the product could not be identified. The chronic dietary exposure to the substance estimated using the Added Portions Exposure Technique (APET) was calculated to be 60 mg/person per day for a 60‐kg adult and 37.8 mg/person per day for a 15‐kg child. The data submitted for evaluating the genotoxic potential of the flavouring was considered insufficient. There are still 12 substances in the flavouring for which the evaluation of genotoxic potential is pending. No toxicity studies have been provided on the final product itself. Only information on a number of constituents of the flavouring and data on toxicity of several thermally treated fats and oils were provided by the applicant. However, the Panel considered the time–temperature conditions that were applied in the preparation of the substances tested as not comparable to those applied in the course of the production of the flavouring. The Panel concluded that on the basis of the data provided by the applicant the safety of Grillin’ 5078 cannot be established.

In vitro and in vivo estrogenic activity of BPA, BPF and BPS in zebrafish-specific assays

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a widely used chemical that has been extensively studied as an endocrine-disrupting chemical (EDC). Other bisphenols sharing close structural features with BPA, are increasingly being used as alternatives, increasing the need to assess associated hazards to the endocrine system. In the present study, the estrogenic activity of BPA, bisphenol S (BPS) and bisphenol F (BPF) was assessed by using a combination of zebrafish-specific mechanism-based in vitro and in vivo assays. The three bisphenols were found to efficiently transactivate all zebrafish estrogen receptor (zfER) subtypes in zebrafish hepatic reporter cell lines (ZELH-zfERs). BPA was selective for zfERα while BPS and BPF were slightly more potent on zfERβ subtypes. We further documented the estrogenic effect in vivo by quantifying the expression of brain aromatase using a transgenic cyp19a1b-GFP zebrafish embryo assay. All three bisphenols induced GFP in a concentration-dependent manner. BPS only partially induced brain aromatase at the highest tested concentrations (>30µM) while BPA and BPF strongly induced GFP, in an ER-dependent manner, at 1-10µM. Furthermore, we show that BPF strongly induced vitellogenin synthesis in adult male zebrafish. Overall, this study demonstrates the estrogenic activity of BPA, BPF and BPS in different cell- and tissue-contexts and at different stages of development. Differences between in vitro and in vivo responses are discussed in light of selective ER activation and the fate of the compounds in the models. This study confirms the relevance of combining cellular and whole-organism bioassays in a unique model species for the hazard assessment of candidate EDCs.

Scientific Opinion of Flavouring Group Evaluation 500 (FGE.500): rum ether

The Panel on Food Contact Materials, Enzymes, Flavourings and Processing Aids of the European Food Safety Authority was requested to deliver a scientific opinion on the implications for human health of the flavouring rum ether [FL-no: 21.001] in the Flavouring Group Evaluation 500 (FGE.500), according to Regulation (EC) No 1331/2008 and Regulation (EC) No 1334/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council. Rum ether is a complex mixture of volatile substances obtained by distillation of the reaction products of pyroligneous acid and ethyl alcohol under oxidative conditions in the presence of manganese dioxide and sulfuric acid. A total of 84 volatile constituents have been reported by the applicant. It is a colourless liquid with a rum-like odour and flavour. Its major uses are in the food categories beverages, confectionery and baked goods. The Panel decided to apply a congeneric group-based approach. The 84 reported constituents were allocated to 12 congeneric groups, based on structural and metabolic similarity. For eight of the congeneric groups, the Panel concluded that there is no safety concern at the intended conditions of use. However, the Panel concluded that substances in congeneric group 1 (ethanol and acetaldehyde) and congeneric group 12 (furan) are carcinogenic and genotoxic. The Panel also identified genotoxicity concerns for substances in congeneric group 3 (3-pentene-2-one). The exposure for congeneric group 10 (ethers of various structures) was above the Threshold of Toxicological Concern (TTC) applicable for this group, but a point of departure or health based guidance value that covers all the substances in this group could not be identified. The Panel concluded that according to the overall strategy for the risk assessment of flavouring substances, the presence of genotoxic substances as process-derived constituents of rum ether is of safety concern.

Safety assessment of the substance dimethyl carbonate for use in food contact materials

This scientific opinion of the EFSA Panel on Food Contact Materials, Enzymes, Flavourings and Processing Aids (CEF Panel) deals with the safety assessment of dimethyl carbonate used as monomer for making a polycarbonate prepolymer with 1,6-hexanediol and then reacted with 4,4'-methylenediphenyldiisocyanate (MDI) and diols, such as polypropylene glycol and 1,4-butanediol, to form a thermoplastic polyurethane containing 29% of the polycarbonate prepolymer. This polymer is intended for repeated use articles with short-term contact (≤ 30 min) at room temperature for types of food, simulated by 10% ethanol and 3% acetic acid. In the third migration test performed at 40°C during 30 min, overall migration was below 2 mg/dm2. Complete migration of the residual dimethyl carbonate would have amounted to less than 1.5 μg/kg food. The migration of two cyclic hexanediol carbonate oligomers was below 50 μg/kg food when determined by the third migration test; that of all others was below 1 μg/kg food. Three in vitro genotoxicity studies performed in accordance with OECD Guidelines and covering the three endpoints gene mutation, structural and numerical aberrations were provided and were considered negative by the CEF Panel. The oligomers detected by the migration tests are formed from dimethyl carbonate and 1,6-hexanediol (FCM ref No 1067) do not give rise to concern for genotoxicity. The CEF Panel concluded that the use of dimethyl carbonate does not raise safety concern in the application described above. It is aware that dimethyl carbonate may be used for other polycarbonates and/or under other conditions. These are likely to result in different migrates which need to be evaluated by the business operators. In such cases, the migration of dimethyl carbonate and the total polycarbonate oligomers below 1,000 Da is of no safety concern, if each of them does not exceed 0.05 mg/kg food.

Safety assessment of the process 'EREMA Recycling (MPR, Basic and Advanced technologies)', used to recycle post-consumer PET into food contact materials

This scientific opinion of the EFSA Panel on Food Contact Materials, Enzymes, Flavourings and Processing Aids (CEF Panel) deals with the safety assessment of the EREMA recycling process (the EREMA Multi‐Purpose Reactor (MPR), EREMA Basic and EREMA Advanced technologies), with EU register number RECYC0134. The input to this process is hot washed and dried poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) flakes originating from collected post‐consumer PET containers, containing no more than 5% PET from non‐food consumer applications. In the MPR technology, post‐consumer washed and dried PET flakes are heated in a continuous reactor under vacuum. The EREMA MPR decontamination technology can be combined with an extrusion line for pellets or sheet (EREMA Basic) or with an additional reactor (EREMA Advanced). The decontamination efficiency of the main continuous reactor (EREMA MPR technology) was determined by the challenge test. The Panel noted that this reactor is the critical step that determines the decontamination efficiency of these three EREMA technologies. The operating parameters controlling its performance are well defined and are temperature, pressure and residence time. It was demonstrated that, depending on the operating conditions, the recycling process under evaluation is able to ensure that the level of migration of potential unknown contaminants into food is below a conservatively modelled migration of 0.1 μg/kg food, derived from the exposure scenario for infants, and 0.15 μg/kg food, derived from the exposure scenario for toddlers, when recycled PET is used at up to 100%. The Panel concluded that recycled PET obtained from the process is not of safety concern when used to manufacture articles intended for food contact applications if it is produced in compliance with the conditions and the percentage of recycled PET added to virgin PET specified in this opinion.

Safety evaluation of the food enzyme β-amylase obtained from soybean (Glycine max)

The food enzyme considered in this opinion is a β-amylase (EC 3.2.1.2) from soybean submitted by Nagase (Europa) GmbH. This β-amylase is intended to be used in the starch processing for maltose syrup production and the manufacture of a Japanese rice cake type. Based on the maximum use levels recommended for the respective food processes, dietary exposure to the food enzyme-total organic solids (TOS) was estimated on the basis of Japanese consumption data. Conservative average infant formula consumption, as reported in the EFSA Draft Guidance on risk assessment of substances present in food intended for infants below 16 weeks of age, was used to estimate the exposure to a fraction of soybean comparable to the food enzyme-TOS, resulting from the consumption of soybean-derived foods. The exposure estimate to the food enzyme-TOS was found to be lower than the comparable fraction from the source material. Potential allergenicity of the β-amylase was evaluated by searching for similarity of the amino acid sequence to those of known allergens, and no match was found. The β-amylase is produced from soybean, which is a known allergenic food. Japanese rice cake, consequently, may contain traces of soybean allergens, which may give rise to safety concerns in soybean-allergic consumers. Based on the origin of the food enzyme from edible parts of soybean, the manufacturing process, the compositional and biochemical data provided and the dietary intake estimates, the Panel concluded that this food enzyme does not give rise to safety concerns under the intended conditions of use, except that Japanese rice cake produced with this food enzyme may contain traces of soybean allergens.

Safety evaluation of the food enzyme endo-1,4-β-xylanase from genetically modified Aspergillus niger strain XYL

The food enzyme considered in this opinion is an endo-1,4-β-xylanase (EC 3.2.1.8) produced with a genetically modified strain of Aspergillus niger. The genetic modifications do not give rise to safety concerns. The food enzyme contains neither the production organism nor recombinant DNA. The endo-1,4-β-xylanase is intended to be used in baking processes. Based on the maximum use levels recommended for the respective food process, dietary exposure to the food enzyme-total organic solids (TOS) was estimated on the basis of individual data from the EFSA Comprehensive European Food Consumption Database. This exposure estimate is below 0.013 mg TOS/kg body weight (bw) per day in European populations. No safety concerns were identified in relation to the genetic modifications performed, the manufacturing process, the compositional and biochemical data provided, allergenicity and exposure assessments. The allergenicity was evaluated by comparing the amino acid sequence to those of known allergens; no match was found. The Panel considered that the likelihood of allergic reactions to dietary intake of endo-1,4-β-xylanase is low and, therefore, does not give rise to safety concerns. The systemic toxicity was assessed by means of a repeated dose 90-day oral toxicity study in rodents. A no observed adverse effect level was derived (4,095 and 4,457 mg TOS/kg bw per day for males and females, respectively), which, compared with the dietary exposure, results in a sufficiently high margin of exposure. However, the genotoxicity data were incomplete. Due to the absence of the recommended combination of microbial strains used in the Ames test (i.e. lack of Salmonella Typhimurium TA102 and Escherichia coli WP2), no conclusions can be drawn on potential DNA oxidising or cross-linking mechanisms giving rise to gene mutations. Consequently, no final conclusions can be drawn on genotoxicity.

Scientific Opinion on Flavouring Group Evaluation 208 Revision 2 (FGE.208Rev2): Consideration of genotoxicity data on alicyclic aldehydes with α,β-unsaturation in ring/side-chain and precursors from chemical subgroup 2.2 of FGE.19

The EFSA Panel on Food Contact Materials, Enzymes, Flavourings and Processing Aids (CEF) was requested to evaluate the genotoxic potential of flavouring substances from subgroup 2.2 of FGE.19 in the Flavouring Group Evaluation 208 Revision 2 (FGE.208Rev2). In FGE.208Rev1, the CEF Panel evaluated genotoxicity studies on p-mentha-1,8-dien-7-al [FL-no: 05.117], the representative substance for FGE.19 subgroup 2.2. The Comet assay performed in liver showed a positive result, and therefore, the Panel concluded that p-mentha-1,8-dien-7-al [FL-no: 05.117] is genotoxic in vivo and that, accordingly, there is a safety concern for its use as flavouring substance. Since p-mentha-1,8-dien-7-al [FL-no: 05.117] is representative for the nine remaining substances of subgroup 2.2 (p-mentha-1,8-dien-7-ol [FL-no: 02.060], myrtenol [FL-no: 02.091], myrtenal [FL-no: 05.106], 2,6,6-trimethyl-1-cyclohexen-1-carboxaldehyde [FL-no: 05.121], myrtenyl formate [FL-no: 09.272], p-mentha-1,8-dien-7-yl acetate [FL-no: 09.278], myrtenyl acetate [FL-no: 09.302], myrtenyl-2-methylbutyrate [FL-no: 09.899] and myrtenyl-3-methylbutyrate [FL-no: 09.900]), the Panel concluded in the previous revision of FGE.208 (FGE.208Rev1) that there is a potential safety concern for these substances. Subsequently, the industry has submitted genotoxicity studies on five substances of FGE.19 subgroup 2.2: p-mentha-1,8-dien-7-ol [FL-no: 02.060], myrtenol [FL-no: 02.091], myrtenal [FL-no: 05.106], p-mentha-1,8-dien-7-yl acetate [FL-no: 09.278] and myrtenyl acetate [FL-no: 09.302], which are evaluated in the present revision of FGE.208 (FGE.208Rev2). The Panel concluded that the concern for genotoxicity could be ruled out for p-mentha-1,8-dien-7-ol [FL-no: 02.060], myrtenol [FL-no: 02.091], p-mentha-1,8-dien-7-yl acetate [FL-no: 09.278] and myrtenyl acetate [FL-no: 09.302], which will be evaluated through the Procedure. Genotoxicity data on myrtenal [FL-no: 05.106] were considered equivocal, therefore, it cannot be evaluated through the Procedure, presently. p-Mentha-1,8-dien-7-al [FL-no: 05.117] and four substances not supported by industry (2,6,6-trimethyl-1-cyclohexen-1-carboxaldehyde [FL-no: 05.121], myrtenyl formate [FL-no: 09.272], myrtenyl-2-methylbutyrate [FL-no: 09.899] and myrtenyl-3-methylbutyrate [FL-no: 09.900]) have been deleted from the Union List.

Safety evaluation of the food enzyme β-amylase obtained from barley (Hordeum vulgare)

The food enzyme considered in this opinion is a 4-α-d-glucan maltohydrolase (EC 3.2.1.2) obtained from grain of barley (Hordeum vulgare), by the companies Genencor International B.V. and Senson Oy. This β-amylase is intended to be used in several food-manufacturing processes: baking and brewing processes, distilled alcohol production, and starch processing for the production of glucose syrups. The compositional data provided for the food enzyme were considered sufficient. The manufacturing process did not raise safety concerns. Based on the maximum use levels recommended for the respective food processes, dietary exposure to the food enzyme-total organic solids (TOS) was estimated on the basis of individual data from the EFSA Comprehensive European Food Consumption Database. This exposure estimate is similar to or lower than the exposure to a fraction of barley comparable to the food enzyme-TOS, resulting from the consumption of barley-derived foods. As the food enzyme is derived from edible parts of barley, in line with the requirements of the guidance document on food enzyme assessment, the Panel accepted that there was no need for the provision of toxicological data for this food enzyme and the Panel concluded that this food enzyme does not give rise to safety concerns under the intended conditions of use. Considering the potential for allergenicity, the gluten content of the food enzyme was below the detection limit of the analytical method, which is well below the level of 20 mg/kg for 'gluten-free' products. The amino acid sequence of the β-amylase was compared to those of known allergens and no match was found. The food enzyme β-amylase from barley is an occupational respiratory allergen and may contain low levels of other allergenic barley proteins that may trigger adverse reactions upon oral challenges in individuals with an oral sensitisation to cereals. The Panel considers that dietary exposure to the food enzyme β-amylase from barley may result in incidental cases of food allergic reactions.

Scientific Opinion on Flavouring Group Evaluation 226 Revision 1 (FGE.226Rev1): consideration of genotoxicity data on one α,β-unsaturated aldehyde from chemical subgroup 1.1.1(b) of FGE.19

The EFSA Panel on Food Contact Materials, Enzymes, Flavourings and Processing Aids was requested to evaluate the genotoxic potential of one flavouring substance from subgroup 1.1.1(b) of FGE.19 in the Flavouring Group Evaluation 226 (FGE.226). The flavour industry provided genotoxicity studies for the substance 4,5-epoxydec-2(trans)-enal [FL-no: 16.071]. Based on these data, the Panel concluded in FGE.226 that 4,5-epoxydec-2(trans)-enal did not induce gene mutations in bacterial cells but was positive in an in vitro micronucleus assay, so, 4,5-epoxydec-2(trans)-enal is considered an in vitro genotoxic agent. The negative results obtained in an in vivo micronucleus assay cannot overrule the positive results of the in vitro micronucleus assay with and without S9-mix due to the lack of demonstration of bone marrow exposure. Following this, the flavour industry has provided plasma analysis of a satellite group of rats treated with 4,5-epoxydec-2(trans)-enal in order to investigate the systemic exposure of animals in the in vivo micronucleus assay. However, the plasma analysis did not provide enough evidence of target tissue exposure. An in vivo Comet assay in rodents was recommended in FGE.226, in order to investigate possible genotoxic effects at the first site of contact (e.g. stomach/duodenum cells) and in the liver. An in vivo Comet assay in liver and duodenum was provided that suggests that 4,5-epoxydec-2(trans)-enal [FL-no: 16.071] did not induce DNA damage in the duodenum of rats. However, the genotoxic effect observed in vitro was confirmed in the in vivo Comet assay in the liver of rats. The Panel concluded that 4,5-epoxydec-2(trans)-enal [FL-no: 16.071] does raise a safety concern with respect to genotoxicity and, therefore, it cannot be evaluated according to the Procedure.

Safety assessment of the substance phosphorous acid, mixed 2,4-bis(1,1-dimethylpropyl)phenyl and 4-(1,1-dimethylpropyl)phenyl triesters for use in food contact materials

This scientific opinion of the EFSA Panel on Food Contact Materials, Enzymes, Flavourings and Processing Aids (CEF Panel) deals with the safety assessment of the substance phosphorous acid, mixed 2,4-bis(1,1-dimethylpropyl)phenyl and 4-(1,1-dimethylpropyl)phenyl triesters. The substance was evaluated by the CEF Panel in 2011 and 2,4-di-tert-amylphenol, an impurity and hydrolysis product was re-evaluated by the CEF Panel in 2015. In this application, the applicant requested an increase of the specific migration limit of the substance, currently established at 5 mg/kg food, to 10 mg/kg food, and provided new toxicological studies. Findings from three new in vitro mutagenicity assays on the oxidation products support the conclusion from 2011 that the substance and its oxidation products are not genotoxic. A new toxicokinetic study on the substance supports the consideration from the evaluation in 2011 that the substance does not raise concern for accumulation. The outcome of a new delayed neurotoxicity study on a structurally related substance, phosphorous acid, tris (2,4-di-tert-butylphenyl) ester, which was considered not to cause neurotoxicity in hens, strengthens the conclusion of the Panel in 2011 that the substance does not represent a concern for neurotoxicity. From a new two-generation reproduction toxicity study and a prenatal developmental toxicity study on the substance, a new subchronic toxicity study on its oxidation products that completes the one submitted in 2011 on the substance itself, and a 2-year oral toxicity study on the structurally related substance, the lowest NOAEL was 58-147 mg/kg bw per day (from the 2-year oral toxicity study). Compared to the requested increase of the migration limit, this gives an acceptable margin of safety of 348. Therefore, the CEF Panel concluded that an increase of the specific migration limit of the substance from 5 to 10 mg/kg food is not a safety concern for the consumer.

Safety assessment of the substance 1,2,3,4-tetrahydronaphthalene-2,6-dicarboxylic acid, dimethyl ester for use in food contact materials

This scientific opinion of the EFSA Panel on Food Contact Materials, Enzymes, Flavourings and Processing aids (CEF Panel) deals with the safety assessment of 1,2,3,4-tetrahydronaphthalene-2,6-dicarboxylic acid, dimethyl ester (TDCM) for use as a co-monomer to manufacture polyester layers. The polyester layer is not intended to be in direct contact with food. The finished multilayer articles are intended for packaging aqueous, acidic and low alcoholic foodstuffs. Contact conditions include sterilisation followed by long-term storage at room temperature. No thermal degradation of TDCM is expected during the manufacture of the middle polyester layer and of the multilayer articles. Total mass transfer of the substance from a polyester monolayer was calculated to be up to 0.032 mg/kg food. Based on three in vitro genotoxicity tests, the CEF Panel considered that the substance does not raise concern for genotoxicity. When tested behind a polypropylene layer, migrating TDCM-related oligomers, their oxidation products and other related reaction products were identified. The major components were TDCM dimers. When tested behind a cyclo-olefin polymer layer, none of the TDCM-related substances were found to migrate. Based on the lack of genotoxicity of the co-monomer, the ester nature of the oligomers and on (quantitative) structure-activity relationship ((Q)SAR) analysis, the CEF Panel considered that there is no indication of genotoxicity for the oligomers, their oxidation products and other TDCM-related reaction products. The CEF Panel concluded that the substance is not of safety concern for the consumer if used as a co-monomer for the manufacture of a polyester layer intended to be used as an inner (non-food contact) layer of a multilayer material for contact with foods simulated by simulants A, B, C, D1 (as set in Regulation (EU) 10/2011). The migration of the sum of the substance and the dimers (cyclic and open chain) should not exceed 0.05 mg/kg food.

Scientific Opinion on Flavouring Group Evaluation 302 (FGE.302): N-(2-methylcyclohexyl)-2,3,4,5,6-pentafluoro-benzamide from Chemical Group 30

The EFSA Panel on Food Contact Materials, Enzymes, Flavourings and Processing Aids was requested to evaluate N‐(2‐methylcyclohexyl)‐2,3,4,5,6‐pentafluoro‐benzamide [FL‐no: 16.119] in the Flavouring Group Evaluation 302, using the Procedure in Commission Regulation (EC) No 1565/2000. The substance is intended to be used as a flavour modifier and the current evaluation is only applicable to this use. Information on the ratios of diastereoisomers of the substance has been provided (cis 20–40% and trans 60–80%). Information on the ratio of enantiomers is lacking. The available data on genotoxicity do not preclude the evaluation of the candidate substance [FL‐no: 16.119] through the Procedure. The substance was evaluated through the B‐side of the Procedure. A ‘No Observed Adverse Effect Level’ (NOAEL) of 55 mg/kg body weight (bw) per day could be derived for [FL‐no: 16.119] from a 90‐day subchronic toxicity study in rats. This NOAEL provides an adequate margin of safety of 1.4 × 10⁶, based on the ‘Maximised Survey‐Derived Daily Intake’ (MSDI) of 2.4 μg/capita per day. Based on the ‘modified Theoretical Added Maximum Daily Intake’ (mTAMDI) approach, the Panel concluded that more information is needed on use and use levels. Besides the safety assessment of this flavouring substance, the specifications for the material of commerce have also been considered. Additional information on the stereoisomeric composition of the flavouring substance is required.

Scientific Opinion on Flavouring Group Evaluation 49, Revision 1 (FGE.49Rev1): xanthine alkaloids from the priority list

Following a request from the European Commission, the EFSA Panel on Food Contact Materials, Enzymes, Flavourings and Processing Aids (CEF) was requested to deliver a scientific opinion on the safety assessment of the flavouring substances caffeine [FL-no: 16.016] and theobromine [FL-no: 16.032] in the Flavouring Group Evaluation 49, Revision 1. Consequent to the 2015 scientific opinion from the EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies (NDA) on the safety of caffeine from all dietary sources, the CEF Panel considered it inappropriate to evaluate the two substances through the Procedure. For caffeine, the Panel based its assessment on the safety threshold of 5.7 mg/kg body weight (bw) per day for adults, except pregnant/lactating women, and 3 mg/kg bw per day for children, adolescents, pregnant and lactating women, as established by the NDA Panel. The safety evaluation of theobromine takes into account that approximately 11% of an oral dose of caffeine is metabolised to theobromine and that both substances have a similar pharmacological profile. For the exposure assessment, a brand loyalty model was chosen. In this model, it was assumed that a consumer is exposed on a long-term basis to a specific category of food (i.e. non-alcoholic beverages), containing caffeine or theobromine at their respective maximum use levels. For the rest of the categories, normal use levels applied. Daily dietary exposure to caffeine and theobromine (excluding systemic exposure) added as a chemically defined flavouring substance ranged 0-2.3 and 0-0.4 mg/kg bw, respectively, across all population groups. The Panel concluded that caffeine [FL-no: 16.016] and theobromine [FL-no: 16.032] would not be expected to present safety concern based on their estimated levels of intake from their use as flavouring substances.

Mineral oil saturated hydrocarbons (MOSH) in female Fischer 344 rats; accumulation of wax components; implications for risk assessment

Female Fischer 344 rats were exposed to three MOSH mixtures: oils largely below and above C₂₅ (S-C25 and L-C25) and a 1:1 mixture of L-C25 with a wax; doses of 400, 1000 and 4000mg/kg feed were administered during 120days. MOSH were determined by on-line HPLC-GC-FID in liver, spleen, adipose tissue and the carcass. The composition of the hydrocarbons accumulated in the tissues was further analyzed by comprehensive two-dimensional GC (GC×GC). MOSH in the mass range of C_26-30 were more strongly accumulated than those between C_20-25, which does not support the present classification of MOSH differentiating at n-C₂₅ for risk assessment. Compared to the total of the MOSH, n-alkanes and n-alkyl monocyclic naphthenes were generally enriched in adipose tissue. In liver and spleen, n-alkanes up to C₂₅ were eliminated, but strongly accumulated at around C₃₀. Based on this profile, poor solubility and the melting points, it is hypothesized that crystallization protects these wax components against metabolism and elimination. In the liver, relative retention of n-alkanes decreased again beyond C₃₀, accentuated at high exposure, suggesting reduced absorption. Compared to the animal data, accumulation of n-alkanes from food sources, such as apples, into human tissues seems low, perhaps because of low absorption due to their presence in crystalline form. A series of dominant isoalkanes, accumulated in all tissues analyzed, was characterized, though without proposing a structure. Implications on present regulation of white mineral oil products are discussed.

An efficient data-filtering strategy for easy metabolite detection from the direct analysis of a biological fluid using Fourier transform mass spectrometry

RATIONALE

High-throughput analyses require an overall analytical workflow including not only a robust and high-speed technical platform, but also dedicated data-processing tools able to extract the relevant information. This work aimed at evaluating post-acquisition data-mining tools for selective extraction of metabolite species from direct introduction high-resolution mass spectrometry data.

METHODS

Investigations were performed on spectral data in which seven metabolites of vinclozolin, a dicarboximide fungicide containing two chloride atoms, were previously manually identified. The spectral data obtained from direct introduction (DI) and high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) detection were post-processed by plotting the mass defect profiles and applying various data-filtering methods based on accurate mass values.

RESULTS

Exploration of mass defect profiles highlighted, in a specific plotting region, the presence of compounds containing common chemical elements and pairs of conjugated and non-conjugated metabolites resulting from classical metabolic pathways. Additionally, the judicious application of mass defect and/or isotope pattern filters removed many interfering ions from DI-HRMS data, greatly facilitating the detection of vinclozolin metabolites. Compared with previous results obtained by manual data treatment, three additional metabolites of vinclozolin were detected and putatively annotated.

CONCLUSIONS

Tracking simultaneously several specific species could be efficiently performed using data-mining tools based on accurate mass values. The selectivity of the data extraction was improved when the isotope filter was used for halogenated compounds, facilitating metabolite ion detection even for low-abundance species. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Comparison of the In Vivo Biotransformation of Two Emerging Estrogenic Contaminants, BP2 and BPS, in Zebrafish Embryos and Adults

Zebrafish embryo assays are increasingly used in the toxicological assessment of endocrine disruptors. Among other advantages, these models are 3R-compliant and are fit for screening purposes. Biotransformation processes are well-recognized as a critical factor influencing toxic response, but major gaps of knowledge exist regarding the characterization of functional metabolic capacities expressed in zebrafish. Comparative metabolic studies between embryos and adults are even scarcer. Using ³H-labeled chemicals, we examined the fate of two estrogenic emerging contaminants, benzophenone-2 (BP2) and bisphenol S (BPS), in 4-day embryos and adult zebrafish. BPS and BP2 were exclusively metabolized through phase II pathways, with no major qualitative difference between larvae and adults except the occurrence of a BP2-di-glucuronide in adults. Quantitatively, the biotransformation of both molecules was more extensive in adults. For BPS, glucuronidation was the predominant pathway in adults and larvae. For BP2, glucuronidation was the major pathway in larvae, but sulfation predominated in adults, with ca. 40% conversion of parent BP2 and an extensive release of several conjugates into water. Further larvae/adults quantitative differences were demonstrated for both molecules, with higher residue concentrations measured in larvae. The study contributes novel data regarding the metabolism of BPS and BP2 in a fish model and shows that phase II conjugation pathways are already functional in 4-dpf-old zebrafish. Comparative analysis of BP2 and BPS metabolic profiles in zebrafish larvae and adults further supports the use of zebrafish embryo as a relevant model in which toxicity and estrogenic activity can be assessed, while taking into account the absorption and fate of tested substances.

Scientific Opinion on Flavouring Group Evaluation 57, Revision 1 (FGE.57Rev1): consideration of isopulegone and three flavouring substances evaluated by JECFA (55th meeting)

The EFSA Panel on Food Contact Materials, Enzymes, Flavourings and Processing Aids was requested to consider evaluations of flavouring substances assessed since 2000 by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA), and to decide whether further evaluation is necessary, as laid down in Commission Regulation (EC) No 1565/2000. The present consideration concerns a group of four flavouring substances consisting of isopulegone and three other substances evaluated by JECFA at the 55th meeting. This revision is made due to additional toxicity data available for (1R,2S,5R)‐isopulegol [FL‐no: 02.067]. The substances were evaluated through a stepwise approach that integrates information on structure–activity relationships, intake from current uses, toxicological threshold of concern, and available data on metabolism and toxicity. p‐Mentha‐1,4(8)‐dien‐3‐one [FL‐no: 07.127] is no longer supported by the flavour industry and was not evaluated. In agreement with JECFA, the Panel evaluated the candidate substances in this Flavouring Group Evaluation (FGE) via the B‐side of the Procedure. Based on a no observed adverse effect level (NOAEL) from a 90‐day oral toxicity study on [FL‐no: 02.067], adequate margins of safety for the three candidate substances could be calculated. Therefore, the Panel agrees with the JECFA conclusion, ‘No safety concern at estimated levels of intake as flavouring substances’ based on the maximised survey‐derived daily intake (MSDI) approach. Besides the safety assessment of these flavouring substances, the specifications for the materials of commerce have also been considered and found adequate. For the three substances evaluated in this FGE, use levels have become available and the modified theoretical added maximum daily intakes (mTAMDIs) were estimated. For [FL‐no: 02.067 and 07.067], the mTAMDI exceeds the toxicological threshold of concern for their structural classes and need more refined exposure assessment to finalise the evaluation.

Scientific Opinion on Flavouring Group Evaluation 7, Revision 5 (FGE.07Rev5): saturated and unsaturated aliphatic secondary alcohols, ketones and esters of secondary alcohols and saturated linear or branched-chain carboxylic acids from chemical group 5

The EFSA Panel on Food Contact Materials, Enzymes, Flavourings and Processing Aids was requested to evaluate 53 flavouring substances attributed to the Flavouring Group Evaluation 07, including four new substances but-3-en-2-ol, non-1-en-e-ol, hex-1-en-3-one and 1-nonene-3-one [FL-nos: 02.131, 02.187, 07.161 and 07.210] in this Revision 5, using the Procedure in Commission Regulation (EC) No 1565/2000. None of the 53 substances was considered to have genotoxic potential. The substances were evaluated through a stepwise approach that integrates information on the structure-activity relationships, intake from current uses, toxicological threshold of concern (TTC), and available data on metabolism and toxicity. The Panel concluded that all 53 substances do not give rise to safety concerns at their levels of dietary intake, estimated on the basis of the 'Maximised Survey-derived Daily Intake' (MSDI) approach. Besides the safety assessment of the flavouring substances, the specifications for the materials of commerce have also been considered and found adequate. For 50 substances, further information is required based on comparison of the 'modified Theoretical Added Maximum Daily Intakes' (mTAMDIs) with the TTCs. This would include more reliable intake data and then, if required, additional toxicological data.

Effect of dietary pristane and other saturated mineral oils (MOSH) on autoimmune arthritis in rats

Pristane and other adjuvants based on mineral oil saturated hydrocarbons (MOSH) may induce autoimmunity in rodents after intradermal injection; however there is a lack of information on immune effects after oral MOSH exposure. The aim of our study was to determine the impact of dietary exposure to pristane and other MOSH on the development of autoimmune arthritis.

Dark Agouti (DA) rats were given feed containing 4000 mg/kg pristane or a broad MOSH mixture in various concentrations (0–4000 mg/kg) for 90 days, or a single intradermal injection of 200 μl pristane (positive control). Arthritis scores, and serum and splenocyte markers previously associated with arthritis development, were determined.

All rats injected with pristane displayed arthritis symptoms and higher levels of certain serum markers. None of the rats fed pristane or MOSH developed arthritis symptoms or demonstrated clear changes in any measured arthritis-associated biological markers in serum or splenocytes.

The absence of clinical arthritis symptoms or any increase in common arthritis-associated biological markers in sera and spleen following dietary exposure to pristane or a broad MOSH mixture in a sub-chronic rat model of arthritis suggest that dietary MOSH have low capacity to promote development of autoimmunity.

Role of human sulfotransferase 1A1 and N-acetyltransferase 2 in the metabolic activation of 16 heterocyclic amines and related heterocyclics to genotoxicants in recombinant V79 cells

Heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAAs) are primarily produced during the heating of meat or fish. HAAs are mutagenic and carcinogenic, and their toxicity in model systems depend on metabolic activation. This activation is mediated by cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes, in particular CYP1A2. Some studies have indicated a role of human sulfotransferase (SULT) 1A1 and N-acetyltransferase (NAT) 2 in the terminal activation of HAAs. In this study, we conducted a metabolism/genotoxicity relationship analysis for 16 HAAs and related heterocyclics. We used the γH2AX genotoxicity assay in V79 cells (deficient in CYP, SULT and NAT) and V79-derived cell lines genetically engineered to express human CYP1A2 alone or in combination with human SULT1A1 or NAT2. Our data demonstrated genotoxic properties for 13 out of the 16 compounds tested. A clear relationship between metabolic bioactivation and genotoxicity allowed to distinguish four groups: (1) Trp-P-1 genotoxicity was linked to CYP1A2 bioactivation only-with negligible effects of phase II enzymes; (2) Glu-P-2, Glu-P-1, Trp-P-2, APNH, MeAαC and AαC were bioactivated by CYP1A2 in combination with either phase II enzyme tested (NAT2 or SULT1A1); (3) IQ, 4-MeIQ, IQx, 8-MeIQx, and 4,8-DiMeIQx required CYP1A2 in combination with NAT2 to be genotoxic, whereas SULT1A1 did not enhance their genotoxicity; (4) PhIP became genotoxic after CYP1A2 and SULT1A1 bioactivation-NAT2 had not effect. Our results corroborate some previous data regarding the genotoxic potency of seven HAAs and established the genotoxicity mechanism for five others HAAs. This study also permits to compare efficiently the genotoxic potential of these 13 HAAs.

Safety assessment of the mixture of methyl-branched and linear C14-C18 alkanamides, derived from fatty acids, for use in food contact materials

This scientific opinion of the EFSA Panel on Food Contact Materials, Enzymes, Flavourings and Processing Aids (CEF Panel) deals with the safety assessment of the mixture of methyl-branched and linear C14-C18 alkanamides, derived from fatty acids, for use in food contact materials as a slip or release agent at up to 1% w/w in polyolefins. The final materials are intended for contact with foodstuffs other than fatty foods for long-term storage at room temperature including short heating. No thermal degradation of the substance is expected under manufacturing process conditions of polyolefins. Specific migration from low-density polyethylene (LDPE) made with 0.37% of the substance into 3% acetic acid and 10% ethanol was up to 0.68 mg/kg. Based on negative results in a bacterial mutation test and in an in vivo micronucleus test, there was no evidence of a genotoxic potential of the substance. Impurities were determined and the main ones were tested in a bacterial mutation test giving negative results. Along with the negative results from the in vivo micronucleus test on the substance containing the impurities, there was no evidence of a genotoxic potential of the impurities. Based on a 28-day study on the substance, the Panel noted that there is sufficient margin of safety between the no observed adverse effect level (NOAEL) and the maximum exposure of consumers that could occur at a migration level of 5 mg/kg food, to cover uncertainties about toxic effects due to potential accumulation of slowly hydrolysed branched amide species of the substance during chronic exposure. The CEF Panel concluded that the substance is not of safety concern for consumers if it is used in the manufacture of polyolefin articles intended for contact with all foodstuffs other than fatty foods and the migration does not exceed 5 mg/kg food. The 5 mg/kg food migration should not apply to n-stearamide.

Food-grade TiO2 impairs intestinal and systemic immune homeostasis, initiates preneoplastic lesions and promotes aberrant crypt development in the rat colon

Food-grade titanium dioxide (TiO₂) containing a nanoscale particle fraction (TiO₂-NPs) is approved as a white pigment (E171 in Europe) in common foodstuffs, including confectionary. There are growing concerns that daily oral TiO₂-NP intake is associated with an increased risk of chronic intestinal inflammation and carcinogenesis. In rats orally exposed for one week to E171 at human relevant levels, titanium was detected in the immune cells of Peyer’s patches (PP) as observed with the TiO₂-NP model NM-105. Dendritic cell frequency increased in PP regardless of the TiO₂ treatment, while regulatory T cells involved in dampening inflammatory responses decreased with E171 only, an effect still observed after 100 days of treatment. In all TiO₂-treated rats, stimulation of immune cells isolated from PP showed a decrease in Thelper (Th)-1 IFN-γ secretion, while splenic Th1/Th17 inflammatory responses sharply increased. E171 or NM-105 for one week did not initiate intestinal inflammation, while a 100-day E171 treatment promoted colon microinflammation and initiated preneoplastic lesions while also fostering the growth of aberrant crypt foci in a chemically induced carcinogenesis model. These data should be considered for risk assessments of the susceptibility to Th17-driven autoimmune diseases and to colorectal cancer in humans exposed to TiO₂ from dietary sources.