Decreased activity of brush border membrane-bound digestive enzymes in small intestines from pigs experimentally infected with porcine epidemic diarrhea virus

Brush border membrane-bound digestive enzymes such as disaccharidases (lactase, sucrase, and maltase), leucine aminopeptidase N, and alkaline phosphatase were measured in jejunum from pigs experimentally infected with porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV). Three piglets from the infected and control groups were euthanized by electrocution and subjected to necropsy at 24, 36, 48, 60, and 72 hours post-inoculation (hpi). The infection of PEDV to jejunum resulted in significant decreases in brush border membrane-bound digestive enzymes such as disaccharidases (lactase, sucrase, and maltase), leucine aminopeptidase N, and alkaline phosphatase. PEDV replication results in massive destruction of villous enterocytes leading to a marked reduction of intestinal epithelial surface and brush border membrane-bound digestive enzyme activity. Reduced enzymatic activity and villous atrophy in the small intestine is thought to result in a maldigestive and malabsorptive diarrhea.

Types of macular hole closure and their clinical implications

AIMS

To evaluate the clinical significance of macular hole closure types assessed by optical coherence tomography (OCT).

METHODS

This study involved 34 eyes of 32 patients who had undergone anatomically successful idiopathic macular hole surgery. The closed macular holes were categorised into two patterns based on OCT; type 1 closure (closed without foveal neurosensory retinal defect) and type 2 closure (closed with foveal neurosensory retinal defect). Association between visual prognosis, type of hole closure, and possible prognostic factors were analysed.

RESULTS

19 eyes (61.3%) were classified into the type 1 closure and 12 eyes (38.7%) into the type 2 closure. The extent of postoperative visual improvement of type 1 closure group was larger than that of type 2 closure group (p=0.002). The preoperative macular hole size of type 2 closure group was significantly larger than that of type 1 closure group (p=0.006). The duration of symptoms was positively correlated with the preoperative macular hole size (p=0.01). Recurrence of macular hole occurred only in the type 2 closure group.

CONCLUSION

The type of macular hole closure, which was influenced by the preoperative hole diameter, was associated with postoperative visual prognosis. Early detection and intervention in macular hole should be emphasised.

A dominant antigenic region of the hantaan virus nucleocapsid protein is located within a amino-terminal short stretch of hydrophilic residues

The nucleocapsid (N) protein of the Hantaan virus (HTNV) is a major viral antigen that induces a strong antibody response during the acute phase of infection. By immunoblot analyses of the recombinant N proteins using human sera of the hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS), we have confirmed previous finding by other investigators of the presence of a highly antigenic region near the amino terminus of the HTNV N protein. We have further located the antigenic region within a short stretch of hydrophilic sequences between the 26 and the 46th amino acid residues. The recombinant glutathione S-transferase fusion proteins containing this region was expressed as a soluble form in a large quantity in Escherichia coli, and purified by a single-step affinity chromatography. The recombinant antigen also showed a similar, but a weaker reactivity with human antisera to Seoul virus (SEOV), the virus most closely related to HTNV.

A divalent recombinant immunotoxin formed by a disulfide bond between the extension peptide chains

Recombinant immunotoxin for the treatment of cancer was made by connecting toxins to 'carcinoma-specific' antibodies that selectively bind to cancer cells, then kills them without harming the normal cells. The divalent recombinant immunotoxin, [B3(Fab)-ext-PE38]2, is a derivative of B3(Fab)-PE38. B3(Fab)-PE38 was made by fusing the Fab domain of the monoclonal antibody (MAb) B3 to PE38, a truncated mutant form of Pseudomonas exotoxin (PE). In this study, B3(Fab)-ext-PE38 was constructed, which has the hinge region of the B3(Fab)-PE38 extended with the peptide extension, G4C(G4S)2, and connected to the C3 connector. The Cys residue of the extension peptide chain makes the disulfide bond between the two Fab domains. The extension sequence (ext) makes the dimerization of B3(Fab)-ext-PE38 easier to form the divalent immunotoxin, because it decreases the steric hindrance between the two PE38s. The constructed genes were expressed in E. coli as inclusion bodies. Polypeptides that were obtained from the inclusion body were refolded, and the active forms were purified. The ID50 values of the divalent molecule, [B3(Fab)-ext-PE38]2, were about 4 ng/ml on A431 cell lines, about 1 ng/ml on CRL1739 cell lines, and 5 ng/ml on MCF-7 cell lines. The [B3(Fab)-ext-PE38]2 showed about a 12-fold higher cytotoxicity on CRL1739 cell lines than B3(scFv)-PE40 did.

BMPR-IA signaling is required for the formation of the apical ectodermal ridge and dorsal-ventral patterning of the limb

We demonstrate that signaling via the bone morphogenetic protein receptor IA (BMPR-IA) is required to establish two of the three cardinal axes of the limb: the proximal-distal axis and the dorsal-ventral axis. We generated a conditional knockout of the gene encoding BMPR-IA (Bmpr) that disrupted BMP signaling in the limb ectoderm. In the most severely affected embryos, this conditional mutation resulted in gross malformations of the limbs with complete agenesis of the hindlimbs. The proximal-distal axis is specified by the apical ectodermal ridge (AER), which forms from limb ectoderm at the distal tip of the embryonic limb bud. Analyses of the expression of molecular markers, such as Fgf8, demonstrate that formation of the AER was disrupted in the Bmpr mutants. Along the dorsal/ventral axis, loss of engrailed 1 (En1) expression in the non-ridge ectoderm of the mutants resulted in a dorsal transformation of the ventral limb structures. The expression pattern of Bmp4 and Bmp7 suggest that these growth factors play an instructive role in specifying dorsoventral pattern in the limb. This study demonstrates that BMPR-IA signaling plays a crucial role in AER formation and in the establishment of the dorsal/ventral patterning during limb development.

Diabetes mellitus induces vaginal tissue fibrosis by TGF-beta 1 expression in the rat model

The commonly reported sexual problem in women with diabetes mellitus is lack of vaginal lubrication. It is our hypothesis that reduced vaginal lubrication in diabetic women may result from the structural changes of the vagina. The aim of this study was to investigate in the diabetic rat model the vaginal structures using histochemistry and the expression of TGF-beta 1 using immunohistochemistry. Twenty female Sprague-Dawley rats (200-210 g) were divided into two groups: control and experimental. The experimental group (n = 10) received intravenous injection of streptozotocin (50 mg/kg). After 4 weeks, blood glucose levels were measured, and the vagina of the rat was excised. Serial sections of the vagina were used to perform hematoxylin and eosin (H & E) and Masson's trichrome stains, and for immunohistochemistry to identify TGF-beta 1 expression. The mean blood glucose concentrations were 67 +/- 11 mg/dL (range; 50-85) in the control group and 522 +/- 61 mg/dl (range; 429-590) in the experimental group. In the diabetic animals, vaginal tissue revealed reduced epithelial layers and decreased vaginal submucosal vasculatures compared to the control animals. The collagen connective tissue in the submucosal area of the diabetic animal tissue showed a dense and irregular, distorted arrangement. The immunoreactivity of TGF-beta 1 in the diabetic animals was prominent in the collagen connective tissue, fibroblasts, and smooth muscle fibers, whereas no immunoactivity was detected in the vaginal structures of the control animals. Diabetes mellitus may induce vaginal tissue fibrosis by TGF-beta 1 expression in the rat model. This implies that reduced vaginal lubrication in the diabetic women may result from the structural changes of the vagina.

Conserved cysteine and tryptophan residues of the endothelin-converting enzyme-1 CXAW motif are critical for protein maturation and enzyme activity

The neprilysin (NEP)/endothelin-converting enzyme (ECE) family of metalloproteases contains a highly conserved carboxyl-terminal tetrapeptide sequence, CXAW, where "C" is cysteine, "X" is a polar amino acid, "A" is an aliphatic residue, and "W" is tryptophan. Although this sequence strongly resembles a prenylation motif, human ECE-1 did not appear to be prenylated when labeled in vivo using various isoprenoid precursors in cell lines expressing ECE-1. We used site-directed mutagenesis to investigate the role of the CXAW motif and determined that the conserved cysteine residue of the CXAW motif in ECE-1, Cys(755), is critical for proper folding of the enzyme, its export from the endoplasmic reticulum, and its maturation in the secretory pathway. In addition, site-directed mutagenesis revealed that the conserved tryptophan residue of the sequence CEVW appears to be important for endoplasmic reticulum export and is essential for enzyme activity. Deletion of Trp(758) or substitution with alanine greatly slowed maturation of the enzyme, and resulted in more than a 90% loss of enzyme activity relative to the wild type. Conservative substitution of the tryptophan with phenylalanine did not reduce activity, whereas replacement with tyrosine, methionine, or leucine reduced enzyme activity by 50%, 75%, and 85%, respectively. Together, these data indicate that the conserved CEVW sequence does not serve as a prenylation signal and that both the conserved cysteine and tryptophan residues are necessary for proper folding and maturation of the enzyme. Furthermore, the conserved tryptophan appears to be critical for enzyme activity.

The truncated cytoplasmic tail of HLA-G serves a quality-control function in post-ER compartments

In contrast to the current model of MHC class I trafficking, which predicts that once a MHC class I molecule leaves the ER, it moves to the cell surface by bulk flow, we show that HLA-G that is loaded with suboptimal peptides is retrieved from post-ER compartments to the ER. Loading of HLA-G with high-affinity peptides abrogates this retrieval due to the lack of binding affinity to coatomer. Moreover, the loss of the endocytosis motif in the truncated cytoplasmic tail results in the prolonged half-life of HLA-G on the cell surface. Our findings reveal that surface expression of HLA-G can be further regulated in post-ER compartments and that the truncated cytoplasmic tail plays a critical role in such quality-control mechanisms.

Decreased circulating levels of estrogen alter vaginal and clitoral blood flow and structure in the rabbit

Aging and menopause related decline in circulating levels of estrogen has been shown to adversely affect female sexual arousal function. Our aim was to study the effects of circulating levels of estrogen on the hemodynamic mechanism of vaginal and clitoral engorgement and on the structure of the vaginal and clitoral cavernosal tissue in the rabbit. New Zealand White female rabbits (3.5-4 kg) were randomly divided into three groups with five rabbits in each group: control; bilateral oophorectomy; bilateral oophorectomy undergoing subcutaneous injection of estrogen (40 microg/kg/day). After 6 weeks, the serum levels of 17 beta-estradiol were measured and systemic blood pressure was monitored. Vaginal and clitoral cavernosal blood flows were measured with laser Doppler flowmeter before and after pelvic nerve stimulation. Cross sections of the clitoris and vagina were processed for histologic examination and histomorphometric image analysis. Serum level of 17 beta-estradiol (pg/ml; mean+/-s.d.) revealed a significant decrease in the oophorectomy group (25.4+/-5.1) compared with the control (38.5+/-7.6) and estrogen replacement (115.9+/-57.3) groups (P<0.05). Nerve stimulation-induced peak vaginal and clitoral intracavernosal blood flows in the oophorectomy group (28.9+/-16.3 and 6.1+/-1.4, respectively) were significantly less than those recorded in the control (48.9+/-6.5 and 11.0+/-2.4, respectively) or estrogen replacement (48.7+/-12.2 and 10.1+/-2.8, respectively) group (P<0.05). In histology, marked thinning of the vaginal epithelial layers, decreased vaginal submucosal microvasculature, and diffuse clitoral cavernosal fibrosis were evident in the oophorectomy group but not in the estrogen supplement and control groups. In histomorphometry, the percentage of clitoral cavernosal smooth muscle in the oophorectomy group (49.6+/-6.2) was significantly decreased compared with the control (56.8+/-2.6) and estrogen replacement (58+/-3.0) groups (P<0.05). Our studies show that decline in circulating levels of estrogen impairs the hemodynamic mechanism of vaginal and clitoral engorgement and leads to histopathologic changes in the vagina and clitoral cavernosal tissue. These observations suggest that decreased circulating levels of estrogen, a physiologic change in the menopausal state, may play a role in the development of female sexual arousal dysfunction.

Adsorption of ferrous iron on the lepidocrocite surface

This study explored the ferrous iron adsorption capacity of three synthesized lepidocrocites as well as their morphology and surface area. Their morphologies were observed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and their surface areas were measured by BET isotherm techniques using nitrogen gas at the liquid nitrogen temperature. The adsorption capacities of the three distinctive lepidocrocites were measured and the data were processed by multiple regression technique to obtain the adsorption constants in the proposed model. The microphotographs of the lepidocrocites revealed that lepidocrocites could have an acicular shape as well as the shape of agglomerated flocs. The surface areas of the synthesized lepidocrocites in this study varied widely from 48.98 m2 g(-1) to 150.28 m2 g(-1). Adsorption capacities of three distinctive lepidocrocites for ferrous iron were investigated at four different pH levels. It was observed that there was no correlation between the BET surface area and adsorption capacity. The sites accessible to nitrogen gas might not be available to ferrous iron in water. An adsorption model based on the Freundlich equation was built to predict the effect of pH and the equilibrium concentration of ferrous iron in water. Multiple regression of data revealed that the amount of ferrous iron adsorbed on the unit weight of lepidocrocite was proportional to the 0.57 power of the ferrous iron concentration and inversely proportional to the 0.66 power of the hydrogen ion concentration.

CD99 regulates the transport of MHC class I molecules from the Golgi complex to the cell surface

The down-regulation of surface expression of MHC class I molecules has recently been reported in the CD99-deficient lymphoblastoid B cell line displaying the characteristics of Hodgkin's and Reed-Sternberg phenotype. Here, we demonstrate that the reduction of MHC class I molecules on the cell surface is primarily due to a defect in the transport from the Golgi complex to the plasma membrane. Loss of CD99 did not affect the steady-state expression levels of mRNA and protein of MHC class I molecules. In addition, the assembly of MHC class I molecules and the transport from the endoplasmic reticulum to the cis-Golgi occurred normally in the CD99-deficient cells, and no difference was detected between the CD99-deficient and the control cells in the pattern and degree of endocytosis. Instead, the CD99-deficient cells displayed the delayed transport of newly synthesized MHC class I molecules to the plasma membrane, thus causing accumulation of the molecules within the cells. The accumulated MHC class I molecules in the CD99-deficient cells were colocalized with alpha-mannosidase II and gamma-adaptin in the Golgi compartment. These results suggest that CD99 may be associated with the post-Golgi trafficking machinery by regulating the transport to the plasma membrane rather than the endocytosis of surface MHC class I molecules, providing a novel mechanism of MHC class I down-regulation for immune escape.

Structural and functional dissection of human cytomegalovirus US3 in binding major histocompatibility complex class I molecules

The human cytomegalovirus US3, an endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-resident transmembrane glycoprotein, forms a complex with major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I molecules and retains them in the ER, thereby preventing cytolysis by cytotoxic T lymphocytes. To identify which parts of US3 confine the protein to the ER and which parts are responsible for the association with MHC class I molecules, we constructed truncated mutant and chimeric forms in which US3 domains were exchanged with corresponding domains of CD4 and analyzed them for their intracellular localization and the ability to associate with MHC class I molecules. All of the truncated mutant and chimeric proteins containing the luminal domain of US3 were retained in the ER, while replacement of the US3 luminal domain with that of CD4 led to cell surface expression of the chimera. Thus, the luminal domain of US3 was sufficient for ER retention. Immunolocalization of the US3 glycoprotein after nocodazole treatment and the observation that the carbohydrate moiety of the US3 glycoprotein was not modified by Golgi enzymes indicated that the ER localization of US3 involved true retention, without recycling through the Golgi. Unlike the ER retention signal, the ability to associate with MHC class I molecules required the transmembrane domain in addition to the luminal domain of US3. Direct interaction between US3 and MHC class I molecules could be demonstrated after in vitro translation by coimmunoprecipitation. Together, the present data indicate that the properties that allow US3 to be localized in the ER and bind MHC class I molecules are located in different parts of the molecule.

Design of a peptide inhibitor that blocks the cell fusion mediated by glycoprotein 41 of human immunodeficiency virus type 1

Fusion between the envelope of HIV and the plasma membrane of target cells is mediated by gp41, the envelope glycoprotein of HIV. Peptides derived from the membrane-proximal helical motif of the extracellular domain of gp41 effectively inhibit the infection of HIV, and their inhibitory activities are known to be correlated with the helical propensity of the peptides. We have designed small peptides that can form a stable alpha helix and thereby inhibit gp120/41-mediated cell fusion. A 19-mer peptide from the membrane-proximal helical motif of gp41 had no secondary structure in solution, and failed to block gp41-mediated cell fusion. When amino acids with low helical propensity were substituted, and helix-capping sequences were introduced at both ends of the peptides, the modified peptides formed a stable helical structure. They also bound to the coiled-coil motif of gp41 presented at the C terminus of thioredoxin and blocked the cell fusion mediated by gp120/41. These results implied that such modification was enough to change a short peptide derived from gp41 into a potent inhibitor against the infection of HIV.

Inhibitor potencies and substrate preference for endothelin-converting enzyme-1 are dramatically affected by pH

Phosphoramidon has been shown to inhibit endothelin-converting enzyme-1 (ECE-1) in a remarkably pH-dependent manner (Ahn et al. Arch Biochem Biophys 1998;359:258-68). In order to determine whether this dramatic pH-dependence is a general phenomenon of ECE-1, two structurally unrelated ECE-1 inhibitors, PD 069185 and CGS 31447, were tested for ECE-1 inhibition at various pH values. Our data indicate that the potencies of these ECE-1 inhibitors are also highly affected by pH. ECE-1 is known to have a very sharp activity optimum at neutral pH which is in marked contrast to the acidic pH optimum for ECE-2. However, our results show that the pH optimum for ECE-1 activity is highly substrate-dependent. ECE-1 hydrolyzes the small peptide hormones bradykinin and substance P with acidic pH optima of 5.6-5.8, which sharply contrasts the neutral pH optimum with big ET-1 as substrate. These data suggest that the substrate preference for ECE-1 is highly affected by pH and that this pH-dependence for substrate preference might be one way of controlling the specificity of the enzyme in vivo.

Development of an internally quenched fluorescent substrate selective for endothelin-converting enzyme-1

Endothelin-converting enzyme-1 (ECE-1) is a membrane-bound zinc-metallopeptidase that is related to neprilysin in amino acid sequence. A major in vivo function of ECE-1 is the proteolytic conversion of big endothelin-1 to endothelin-1, one of the most potent vasconstricting peptides known. Although ECE-1 was once thought to be specific for the processing of endothelin precursors, it is now known that the enzyme hydrolyzes a number of peptide hormones. We have incorporated knowledge gained from recent studies of ECE-1 substrate specificity to aid the design of internally-quenched fluorescent substrates derived from bradykinin. The best of these substrates, (7-methoxycoumarin-4-yl)acetyl-Arg-Pro-Pro-Gly-Phe-Ser-Ala-Phe-Lys(2, 4-dinitrophenyl), is hydrolyzed by ECE-1 with a k(cat)/K(m) value of 1.9 x 10(7) M(-1) s(-1), making it the most sensitive substrate yet described for ECE-1. The substrate is suitable for the rapid, continuous assay of the enzyme using a microplate format in a fluorescence plate reader, thereby simplifying both the purification of ECE-1 and the characterization of its inhibitors. It is demonstrated that (7-methoxycoumarin-4-yl)acetyl-Arg-Pro-Pro-Gly-Phe-Ser-Ala-Phe-Lys(2, 4-dinitrophenyl) is also a substrate for neprilysin, but is hydrolyzed 10-fold more efficiently by ECE-1, making this substrate selective for ECE-1. Furthermore, this synthetic peptide is a poor substrate for the matrix metalloproteinases.

Procathepsin L self-association as a mechanism for selective secretion

The lysosomal cysteine pro-protease procathepsin L was enriched in dense vesicles detectable when microsomes prepared from wild-type or transformed mouse fibroblasts were resolved on sucrose gradients. These dense vesicles did not comigrate with proteins characteristic of the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi, endosomes or lysosomes. When gradient fraction vesicles were lysed at acidic pH in the presence of excess mannose 6-phosphate to prevent binding to mannose phosphate receptors, the majority of the procathepsin L was associated with the membrane, not the soluble, fraction. Immunogold labeling of procathepsin L in thin sections of cells or gradient fractions, using antibodies directed against the propeptide to avoid detection of the mature enzyme in dense lysosomes, revealed that the proenzyme was concentrated in dense cores localized in small vesicles near the plasma membrane and in multivesicular bodies. Consistent with the density of the gradient fraction and the electron density of the cores, yeast two-hybrid assays indicated the proenzyme could bind itself but could not interact with the aspartic proprotease procathepsin D. The data suggest that in mouse fibroblasts procathepsin L may self-associate into aggregates, initiating the formation of dense vesicles that could mediate the selective secretion of procathepsin L independent of mannose phosphate receptors.

Ammonia removal using hepatoma cells in mammalian cell cultures

It was examined whether hepatocyte cell lines can be used for ammonia removal in mammalian cell cultures. It was found that there exists a critical ammonium concentration level for each hepatocyte cell to remove ammonia. Among the cells tested in this work, primary hepatocytes showed the strongest ammonia removal capability if ammonium concentration is higher than the critical level. However, primary hepatocytes lost the liver function gradually and finally died after 2-3 weeks. Because of this limitation, primary hepatocytes were not appropriate to be used for ammonia removal in long-term cultures. Hep G2 cells, which are immortal, also showed a strong ammonia removal activity. The ammonia removal activity of Hep G2 cells depended on the concentration of ammonium in the medium, as in the case of primary hepatocytes. However, urea could not be detected in the course of ammonia removal by Hep G2 cells. Instead of urea, Hep G2 cells secreted glutamine into the culture medium. The capacity for ammonia removal was higher in the absence than in the presence of glutamine. Thus we checked the activity of glutamine synthetase in the Hep G2 cells. The level of glutamine synthetase activity increased with the addition of ammonium chloride. This result accounts for the ammonium concentration dependency of Hep G2 cells in ammonia removal and glutamine synthesis. Furthermore Hep G2 cells could grow well in the absence of glutamine, which was necessarily required in mammalian cell cultures. These results prove that glutamine formation serves as the primary mechanism of detoxifying ammonia in hepatocyte cell lines as expected. In addition, it was demonstrated that ammonium level could be reduced 38% and that erythropoietin production increased 2-fold in the mixed culture of Hep G2 and recombinant CHO cells.

Regulation of chymase production in human mast cell progenitors

BACKGROUND

Although mature tryptase-positive mast cells (MCs) and tryptase and chymase double-positive MCs are recognized using in situ staining and are preferentially distributed in different tissues, recent findings suggest that tryptase-positive MCs can give rise to tryptase and chymase double-positive MCs.

OBJECTIVE

We investigated the regulation of chymase production in developing MCs.

METHODS

Human cord blood or peripheral blood cells were cultured in the presence of stem cell factor and IL-6 with or without IL-4 in methylcellulose or liquid medium. Intracellular chymase and tryptase were determined with immunocytochemistry, flow cytometry, and ELISA. Chymase messenger RNA expression was examined with 3 different methods, such as Northern blotting.

RESULTS

Flow cytometric analysis always showed a unimodal histogram of chymase-positive, as well as tryptase-positive, cells in the presence of various cytokines, even when chymase was not detected in some MCs with immunocytochemistry. The chymase protein expression increased by culture duration and was enhanced by cytokines, such as a high concentration of stem cell factor or IL-4. Chymase messenger RNA was expressed higher in immature MCs than mature chymase protein-rich MCs. We generated macroscopic MC colonies in methylcellulose by culturing CD34(+) cells for 10 weeks and measured cellular chymase, tryptase, and histamine. The chymase/histamine ratio widely varied (0.07-1.01) depending on MC colony, even under the same culture conditions, including IL-4, whereas the tryptase/histamine ratio was relatively constant (1.02-1.89).

CONCLUSION

All human MCs in culture are capable of producing chymase, and the production is clonally regulated at their progenitors by cytokine-independent mechanisms, as well as being totally controlled by cytokine-dependent mechanisms accompanied by maturation.

Random changes of amino acid residues with expected frequency by saturated point mutagenesis

The yeast transcriptional activator protein, Gcn4p from Saccharomyces cerevisiae binds to the specific sequence in the promoters of many amino acid biosynthetic genes for general control. A new random saturation mutagenesis method was developed to isolate Gcn4p derivatives with only one or two mutations in the DNA binding domain without using radioactive isotope. This will be used to identify the amino acids of Gcn4p involved in protein-protein interactions. Saturation mutagenesis in the DNA binding domain of Gcn4p was performed using spiked degenerate oligonucleotides containing randomized codon bases designed specifically for only one or two base changes in the mutagenized area. These oligonucleotides were synthesized to have two flanking restriction enzyme sites for cloning to the appropriate vector. The 3' ends were mutually primed after hybridization via the palindromic sequences of the restriction enzyme sites. These molecules were then converted to double stranded DNA upon treatment with DNA polymerase. Here, a library collection of 100,680 in an altered Gcn4p pool was generated by cloning a mixed-base oligonucleotide in the place of the sequence coding for the DNA binding domains. The quality of the library was examined by DNA sequencing and found to be in good agreement with the expected statistical values. Calculated mutation frequency was 66% of mutant nucleotide rate and actual sequencing data revealed 68% mutant nucleotide rates from the sequenced library. Thus, among 21 mutants, 16 had one point mutations and 5 had two point mutations. This approach appears to be an effective and general tool for creating proteins with one or two amino acid change(s) in their molecules.

Selenite inhibits the c-Jun N-terminal kinase/stress-activated protein kinase (JNK/SAPK) through a thiol redox mechanism

Selenium, an essential biological trace element, has been shown to modulate functions of many regulatory proteins involved in signal transduction and to affect a variety of cellular activities including cell growth, survival, and death. The molecular mechanism by which selenium exerts its action on the cellular events, however, remains unclear. In our present study, we observed that selenite suppresses both the c-Jun N-terminal kinase/stress-activated protein kinase (JNK/SAPK) and the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway in 293T cells. In contrast, selenite had little effect on the extracellular signal-regulated kinase pathway. Furthermore, selenite directly inhibited JNK/SAPK activity in vitro but not the p38 activity. The in vitro inhibition of JNK/SAPK by selenite was reversed by the addition of reducing agents such as dithiothreitol and beta-mercaptoethanol. Replacement of cysteine 116 in JNK1 by serine abolished the inhibitory effect of selenite on JNK1 activity both in vitro and in vivo. Selenite also suppressed a c-Jun-dependent luciferase reporter activity stimulated through the JNK signaling pathway. Taken together, our findings strongly suggest that selenite differentially modulates the mammalian mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways and that it can repress the JNK/SAPK signaling pathway by inhibiting JNK/SAPK through a thiol redox mechanism.

Human cytomegalovirus gene products US3 and US6 down-regulate trophoblast class I MHC molecules

The epidemiological correlation between human CMV (HCMV) infection and spontaneous fetal loss has been suggested, but the underlying mechanism is not well understood. Fetal cytotrophoblasts, which are in direct contact with the maternal immune system in the uterus during pregnancy, do not express HLA-A and HLA-B, but express the nonclassical class I HLA-G and HLA-C. It has been shown that both HLA-G and HLA-C are capable of inhibiting NK-mediated cell lysis. In our present study, using human trophoblast cell lines as well as other cell lines stably transfected with the human class I genes, we have demonstrated that HCMV US3 and US6 down-regulate the cell-surface expression of both HLA-G and HLA-C by two different mechanisms. HCMV US3 physically associates with both trophoblast class I MHC species, retaining them in the endoplasmic reticulum. In contrast, HCMV US6 inhibits peptide transport by TAP and thus specifically the intracellular trafficking of class I molecules. Therefore, these findings suggest for the first time a possible molecular mechanism underlying HCMV-related spontaneous pregnancy loss.

Disulfide bonds in big ET-1 are essential for the specific cleavage at the Trp(21)-Val(22) bond by soluble endothelin converting enzyme-1 from baculovirus/insect cells

Endothelin converting enzyme-1 (ECE-1) is a type II integral membrane protein and a zinc metalloendopeptidase. ECE-1 generates endothelin-1 (ET-1), the most potent vasoconstrictor yet discovered, by specific proteolytic processing of a precursor peptide, big ET-1. An insect cell expression system, which generates up to 4.3 mg of a secreted, soluble form of ECE-1 (solECE-1) per liter culture medium, has been established and solECE-1 was purified to homogeneity using five chromatographic steps. SolECE-1 expressed in insect cells could be suitable for X-ray structure determination as it is much less glycosylated than solECE-1 from mammalian cells. SolECE-1 from both sources, nonetheless, has comparable enzymatic properties. Despite apparent structural similarities, ECE-1 cleaves big ET-1 exclusively between Trp(21) and Val(22), in contrast to neprilysin, which cleaves big ET-1 at various sites. However, when linear big ET-1, in which the formation of disulfide bonds has been prevented by alkylation of the four cysteines, was used as substrate, it was cleaved by solECE-1 at multiple sites. This result indicates that secondary/tertiary structure of big ET-1 induced by disulfide bonds is essential for the specific cleavage of the Trp(21)-Val(22) bond by ECE-1. A continuous, fluorescent ECE-1 assay has been developed using a novel substrate, 2-aminobenzoyl-Arg-Pro-Pro-Gly-Phe-Ser-Pro-(p-nitro-Phe(8))-Arg. This simple and rapid assay can greatly facilitate discovery of novel ECE inhibitors useful as pharmaceutical agents.