Co-targeting IGF-1R and c-kit: synergistic inhibition of proliferation and induction of apoptosis in H 209 small cell lung cancer cells

Most small cell lung cancers (SCLC) coexpress the c-kit protein tyrosine receptor kinase and its ligand stem cell factor, resulting in an autocrine loop. As SCLC growth is also driven by insulin-like growth factor-1 receptor (IGF-1R) signalling, tyrphostins AG 1024 and 1296 (inhibitors of IGF-1R and c-kit activity, respectively) were used to co-target these receptors in H 209 SCLC cells. Combination treatment caused synergy in proliferation inhibition and in apoptosis induction, and also enhanced reduction in phosphorylation of Erk1/Erk2, suggesting that co-targeting IGF-1R and c-kit in SCLC may be more effective than single-agent therapies.

[The first answer to viral infections: type I interferon]

The interferon system is part of the innate immune system in vertebrates. It represents the first line of host defence against viral infections. Virus entry triggers intracellular signalling pathways which lead to the secretion of soluble factors such as interferons and other cytokines. Interferons signal to neighbouring cells that a viral infection has occurred and induce an "antiviral state" resulting in inhibition of virus replication. The first recombinant interferons were produced in the 1980ies and were considered to be a major breakthrough. At present, interferons are routinely used in the therapy of certain viral and autoimmune diseases as well as for neoplastic disorders in man. In 2001 the first interferon preparation for veterinary use was licensed in the European Union. This review summarises the molecular mechanisms of the interferon system and the viral counteractions. The current type I interferon therapies in humans are described and an overview of recent clinical studies in veterinary medicine, including cat, dog, horse, cow, sheep, pig, and poultry, is given. We review the potential application of interferons and arguments in favor or against its therapeutic use in veterinary medicine.

Serum insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-1 and IGF-binding protein-3 do not correlate with Gleason score or quantity of prostate cancer in biopsy samples

OBJECTIVE

To examine the relationship of serum insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-1 and IGF binding protein-3 (IGFBP-3) with histological cancer characteristics in men undergoing transrectal ultrasonography (TRUS)-guided biopsy.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Patients (652), with either an elevated serum prostate-specific antigen level or an abnormal digital rectal examination, were initially evaluated by TRUS and sextant prostatic needle biopsy. Blood was drawn before biopsy, serum extracted and stored frozen until IGF-1 and IGFBP-3 were measured. In all, 241 patients had prostate cancer (37%) and were included in this study. The number of positive biopsies, the volume of tumour in each positive biopsy and the Gleason score were recorded.

RESULTS

Of the 241 patients, 37 had five or six positive biopsies (from six), 128 had two to four and 76 had one. Serum IGF-1 did not correlate with the number of positive biopsies, with means of 176.7, 178.3 and 164.4 ng/mL, respectively (P = 0.3), while the mean IGFBP-3 was 2695, 2795 and 2572 ng/mL, respectively (P = 0.09). The additive percentiles of tumour volume in positive biopsies were assessed for each patient but serum IGF-1 and IGFBP-3 did not correlate (P = 0.7 and 0.9, respectively). In all, 92 patients had a Gleason score of < 7, 80 a score of 7 and 69 a score of > 7; the mean (sd) IGF-1 levels for the three groups were 181 (39), 174.6 (35) and 176 (26) ng/mL, and the mean IGFBP-3 2798 (240), 2735 (284) and 2647 (221) ng/mL, respectively, none of the differences being statistically significant.

CONCLUSIONS

Serum IGF-1 and IGFBP-3 do not correlate with quantity of cancer or Gleason score in biopsy samples from patients with prostate cancer.

Insulin-like growth factor-I receptor signaling and resistance to trastuzumab (Herceptin)

BACKGROUND

Trastuzumab (Herceptin), an anti-HER2/neu receptor monoclonal antibody that inhibits growth of ErbB2-overexpressing breast cancer, is used to treat such cancers. Development of resistance to trastuzumab, however, is common. We investigated whether insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I), which activates cell survival signals, interferes with the growth-inhibitory action of trastuzumab.

METHODS

MCF-7/HER2-18 and SKBR3 human breast cancer models were used to assess cell proliferation, colony formation in soft agar, and cell cycle parameters. Throughout, we used trastuzumab at a dose of 10 microg/mL and IGF-I at a dose of 40 ng/mL. All statistical tests were two-sided.

RESULTS

Trastuzumab inhibited the growth of MCF-7/HER2-18 cells, which overexpress HER2/neu receptors and express IGF-I receptors (IGF-IRs), only when IGF-IR signaling was minimized. For example, in 1% fetal bovine serum (FBS), trastuzumab reduced cell proliferation by 42% (P =.002); however, in 10% FBS or IGF-I, trastuzumab had no effect on proliferation. In SKBR3 cells, which overexpress HER2/neu receptor but express few IGF-IRs, trastuzumab reduced proliferation by 42% (P =.008) regardless of IGF-I concentration. When SKBR3 cells were genetically altered to overexpress IGF-IRs and cultured with IGF-I, trastuzumab had no effect on proliferation. However, the addition of IGF-binding protein-3, which decreased IGF-IR signaling, restored trastuzumab-induced growth inhibition.

CONCLUSIONS

In breast cancer cell models that overexpress HER2/neu, an increased level of IGF-IR signaling appears to interfere with the action of trastuzumab. Thus, strategies that target IGF-IR signaling may prevent or delay development of resistance to trastuzumab.

Milk intake, circulating levels of insulin-like growth factor-I, and risk of colorectal cancer in men

BACKGROUND

Milk and dietary calcium may have antiproliferative effects against colorectal cancer, but milk intake also raises serum levels of insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I). A high ratio of IGF-I to IGF-binding protein-3 (IGFBP-3) has been linked to an increased risk of colorectal cancer.

METHODS

In a case-control study nested in the Physicians' Health Study, plasma samples were collected from the period 1982 through 1983 from 14 916 men, aged 40-84 years, who also answered dietary questionnaires. Circulating levels of IGF-I and IGFBP-3 were assayed among 193 men who developed colorectal cancer during 13 years of follow-up and 318 age- and smoking-matched cancer-free control men. Conditional logistic regression was used to assess relative risks (RRs) of colorectal cancer for tertiles of IGF-I/IGFBP-3 and dietary factors. Statistical tests were two-sided.

RESULTS

Overall, there was a moderate but statistically nonsignificant inverse association between intake of low-fat milk or calcium from dairy food and colorectal cancer risk. Intake of dairy food (especially low-fat milk) was also positively and moderately associated with plasma levels of IGF-I, IGFBP-3, and IGF-I/IGFBP-3 among control men. We observed a statistically significant interaction between low-fat milk intake and IGF-I/IGFBP-3 in association with risk of colorectal cancer (P(interaction) =.03). Nondrinkers with IGF-I/IGFBP-3 in the highest tertile had a threefold higher risk than nondrinkers with IGF-I/IGFBP-3 in the lowest tertile (RR = 3.05; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.29 to 7.24), but no such increase was seen among frequent low-fat milk drinkers (RR = 1.05; 95% CI = 0.41 to 2.69). Conversely, among men with high IGF-I/IGFBP-3, frequent low-fat milk drinkers had a 60% lower risk (95% CI = 0.17 to 0.87; P(trend) =.02) than nondrinkers.

CONCLUSION

Intake of dairy products was associated with a modest increase in circulating IGF-I levels, but intake of low-fat milk was associated with lower risk of colorectal cancer, particularly among individuals with high IGF-I/IGFBP-3. This subpopulation, which is at increased risk of colorectal cancer, might benefit the most from specific dietary intervention.

In vivo progression of LAPC-9 and LNCaP prostate cancer models to androgen independence is associated with increased expression of insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) and IGF-I receptor (IGF-IR)

Androgen deprivation therapies for metastatic prostate cancer are useful initially, but progression to androgen independence usually results in relapse within 2 years. The molecular mechanisms underlying the clinically important transition from androgen dependence to androgen independence are poorly described. Several lines of investigation have suggested that insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) are involved in the biology of prostate cancer, but little is known about their relevance to progression to androgen independence. We used three in vivo models of androgen-dependent (AD) human prostate cancer to study this issue. Progression to androgen-independent (AI) growth was associated with a 60-fold increase in expression of IGF-I mRNA in LAPC-9 xenografts and a 28-fold increase in IGF-I expression in LNCAP xenografts, relative to the initial AD neoplasms. IGF type I receptor (IGF-IR) mRNA levels were approximately 2.5-fold and approximately 5-fold higher, respectively, in AI LAPC-9 and LNCaP tumors compared with the original AD neoplasms. AI growth of these xenografts was also associated with significant reductions in IGF binding protein-3 expression. LAPC-4 xenografts, which previously have been shown to exhibit molecular pathology related to HER-2/neu expression with progression to AI, showed relatively minor changes in expression of the genes investigated, but we nevertheless found evidence of increased IGF-IR phosphorylation with progression to androgen independence in this model. Taken together with prior observations, our results suggest that deregulation of expression of genes related to any one of several critical receptor tyrosine kinase regulatory systems, including IGF signaling, may confer androgen independence.

Reduced mammary gland carcinogenesis in transgenic mice expressing a growth hormone antagonist

Several reports have provided evidence that body size early in life is positively correlated with risk of subsequent breast cancer, but the biological basis for this relationship is unclear. We examined tumour incidence in transgenic mice expressing a growth hormone (GH) antagonist and in non-transgenic littermates following exposure to dimethylbenz[ a ]anthracene (DMBA), a well characterized murine mammary gland carcinogen. The transgenic animals had lower IGF-I levels, were smaller in terms of body size and weight, and exhibited decreased tumour incidence relative to controls. The demonstration that both body size early in life and breast cancer incidence are influenced by experimental perturbation of the GH-IGF-I axis in a transgenic model provides evidence that variability between individuals with respect to these hormones underlies the relationship between body size early in life and breast cancer risk observed in epidemiological studies.

Inhibition of insulin-like growth factor signaling pathways in mammary gland by pure antiestrogen ICI 182,780

The antiestrogens ICI 182,780 (ICI) and tamoxifen are clinically useful in the treatment of estrogen receptor-positive breast tumors. We assessed the in vivo effects of ICI, tamoxifen, and estradiol on the insulin-like growth factor (IGF) signaling pathway in the rat mammary gland. ICI significantly decreased the size of the lobular structures, Ki-67 labeling index, and insulin-like growth factor binding protein (IGFBP)-2 and IGFBP-5 gene expression. Treatment of rats with 1, 1.5, and 2 mg of ICI/kg body weight/week resulted in a 2-, 7-, and 8-fold increase in IGFBP-3 transcripts. High doses of ICI increased mammary IGF-1 gene expression by 2-fold (P < 0.01) but decreased IGF-1R and its autophosphorylation to approximately 30% of the control mammary gland. IRS-1, IRS-2, and c-Raf-1 levels in the ICI-treated mammary glands were approximately 30, 15, and 40% of controls, respectively. Basal phosphorylation of IRS-1, Akt-1, and the p85 subunit of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI-3K) were low but detectable after ICI treatment. Despite a significant reduction in levels of IGF-1R, IRS-1, and IRS-2 phosphorylation, phospho p42/p44 MAPK levels were only slightly decreased. Tamoxifen-induced growth inhibition was associated with slight stimulation of IGFBP-3 gene expression and reduction in IRS-2 levels. Basal phosphorylation of IGF-1R, IRS-1, and p85 subunit of PI-3K was decreased by tamoxifen. Estradiol-induced epithelial cell proliferation was associated with inhibition of IGFBP-3 gene expression, stimulation of IGFBP-2 gene expression, and increases in IGF-1R, IRS-1, IRS-2, and c-Raf-1 levels. Although basal phosphorylation of IGF-1R, IRS-1, IRS-2, Akt-1, and the p85 subunit of PI-3K was significantly increased by estradiol, basal phospho p44/42 MAPK was significantly reduced. The data indicate that in addition to their classic actions, antiestrogens have major effects on IGF signaling pathways.

Vitamin D receptor gene polymorphisms, insulin-like growth factors, and prostate cancer risk: a population-based case-control study in China

Operating through the vitamin D receptor (VDR), vitamin D inhibits prostate cancer growth and increases insulin-like growth factor binding protein (IGFBP) expression, suggesting that the vitamin D and insulin-like growth factor (IGF) regulatory systems may operate together to affect prostate cancer. Among 191 newly diagnosed prostate cancer cases and 304 randomly selected population controls in Shanghai, China, we found no significant association between the BsmI or FokI VDR gene polymorphisms and prostate cancer risk. However, we found that among men with the ff FokI genotype, those in the highest tertile of plasma IGFBP-3 had a decreased risk versus those in the lowest tertile (odds ratio, 0.14; 95% confidence interval, 0.04-0.56; P(trend) < 0.01), whereas among men with the FF and Ff genotypes, IGFBP-3 was not associated with risk. Similarly, IGFBP-1 was inversely associated with prostate cancer risk only among men with the ff FokI genotype (odds ratio, 0.25; 95% confidence interval, 0.07-0.85; P(trend) = 0.02). No such FokI genotype-specific effects were observed for IGF-I or IGF-II. Our findings in a low-risk population suggest that the IGF and vitamin D regulatory systems may interact to affect prostate cancer risk. Larger studies are needed to confirm these findings and clarify the underlying mechanisms.

Insulin-like growth factors and prostate cancer: a population-based case-control study in China

Insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) have potent mitogenic and antiapoptotic effects on prostate epithelial cells. Through modulation of IGF bioactivity and other mechanisms, IGF-binding proteins (IGFBPs) also have growth-regulatory effects on prostate cells. Recently, IGF-I and IGFBP-3 have been implicated in prostate cancer risk among Western populations. To assess whether IGF-I, IGF-II, IGFBP-1, or IGFBP-3 are also associated with prostate cancer in a low-risk population, we measured plasma levels of these factors among 128 newly diagnosed prostate cancer cases and 306 randomly selected population controls in Shanghai, China. Relative to the lowest quartile of IGF-I levels, men in the highest quartile had a 2.6-fold higher prostate cancer risk, with a significant trend [odds ratio (OR) = 2.63; 95% confidence interval (95% CI) = 1.19-5.79; P(trend) = 0.01]. In contrast, men in the highest quartile of IGFBP-3 levels had a 46% decreased risk relative to the lowest quartile (OR = 0.54; 95% CI = 0.26-1.15; P(trend) = 0.08). A similar but less distinct result was observed for IGFBP-1 (OR = 0.60; 95% CI = 0.31-1.17; P(trend) = 0.25). Men in the highest quartile for the IGF-I:IGFBP-3 molar ratio (an indirect measure of free IGF-I) had a 2.5-fold higher risk compared with the lowest quartile (OR = 2.51; 95% CI = 1.32-4.75, P(trend) < 0.001). These associations were more pronounced after adjustment for serum 5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol glucuronide and sex hormone-binding globulin levels. There was no significant association with IGF-II levels. Our findings in a low-risk population provide evidence that IGF-I, IGFBP-3, and IGFBP-1 are determinants of prostate cancer and indicate that additional studies are needed to evaluate their effects on ethnic and geographic incidence differentials and to elucidate carcinogenic mechanisms.

Tissue-specific targeting of the pthrp gene: the generation of mice with floxed alleles

PTH-related peptide (PTHrP) has been implicated in a variety of developmental and homeostatic processes. Although mice homozygous for the targeted disruption of the Pthrp gene have greatly expanded our capacity to investigate the developmental roles of the protein, the perinatal lethality of these animals has severely hindered the analysis of Pthrp's postnatal physiological effects. To overcome this obstacle, we have generated mice homozygous for a floxed Pthrp allele, i.e. two loxP sites flanking exon 4 of the Pthrp gene, which encodes most of the protein, with the aim of accomplishing cell type- and tissue-specific deletion of the gene. The ability of the Cre enzyme to cause recombination between the loxP sites and excision of the intervening DNA sequence was tested in vivo by crossing this strain to mice carrying a cre transgene under the transcriptional control of the human beta-actin promoter. The ubiquitous deletion of the floxed allele in the cre/loxP progeny resulted in perinatal lethality as a consequence of aberrant endochondral bone formation, fully recapitulating all the phenotypic abnormalities observed in the conventional Pthrp knockout mouse. The availability of the floxed Pthrp mice will serve as a valuable tool in genetic experiments that aim to investigate the physiological actions of Pthrp in the postnatal state.

Other novel agents: Rationale and current status as chemopreventive agents

Several novel targets are currently being evaluated both preclinically and clinically for the prevention of prostate cancer. Four divergent and novel approaches were discussed at the National Cancer Institute-sponsored workshop entitled, "New Clinical Strategies in Prostate Cancer Prevention." These interventions are further categorized into soy protein-based serine-protease inhibitors that reduce superoxide-induced DNA damage, and molecularly targeted approaches that are directed toward endothelin-1 expression/overexpression, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor ligands, and insulinlike growth factors. Understanding each of these approaches has offered insights into the process of malignant transformation of prostatic epithelium, and further illustrates the difficulties of developing new agents in the treatment and prevention of prostate cancer. Close scrutiny of the clinical data emerging with these approaches, including validation of biologic endpoints, is required before large-scale prevention studies with these novel agents and targets can be considered.

Genetic and nongenetic factors associated with variation of plasma levels of insulin-like growth factor-I and insulin-like growth factor-binding protein-3 in healthy premenopausal women

Circulating levels of insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) and insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 3 (IGFBP-3) vary considerably between normal individuals. Recent epidemiological studies have provided evidence that these levels are predictive of risk of several common cancers. To evaluate possible sources of variation of the levels of circulating IGF-I and IGFBP-3 in females, we studied specific candidate genetic and nongenetic factors in 311 nulliparous, premenopausal Caucasian women, 17-35 years of age. Women who used oral contraceptives (OC) had reduced levels of IGF-I (269 versus 301 ng/ml; P = 0.001 adjusted for age) and increased levels of IGFBP-3 (4213 versus 4009 ng/ml; P = 0.002, adjusted for age) compared with nonusers. The ratio of IGF-I:IGFBP-3 was associated with the dose of estrogen contained in the OC (P(trend) = 0.006, adjusted for age). We identified a novel single bp polymorphism in the promoter region of the gene encoding IGFBP-3. This polymorphism was related to the level of IGFBP-3 in the circulation. Mean IGFBP-3 levels were 4390, 4130, and 3840 ng/ml for the AA, AC, and CC genotypes, respectively (P(trend) = 0.006, adjusted for age and OC use). We observed no effect of a recently described polymorphism in the promoter region of the gene encoding IGF-I on the plasma IGF-I level, but there was evidence for a modifying effect of this locus on the influence of OC on the IGF-I level. Our results support the view that circulating IGF-I levels and IGFBP-3 levels are complex traits and are influenced by a number of interacting genetic and nongenetic factors.

Novel promoter polymorphism in insulin-like growth factor-binding protein-3: correlation with serum levels and interaction with known regulators

Insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-binding protein-3 (IGFBP-3) is a major determinant of circulating levels of the IGFs and is clinically useful for the evaluation of GH deficiency and for predicting the response to GH treatment. Recent studies provide evidence that the circulating level of IGFBP-3 is inversely related to the risk of several common cancers, and that antiproliferative agents such as antiestrogens and retinoids act in part by up-regulating IGFBP-3 gene (IGFBP3) expression. Although approximately 50% of the substantial interindividual variability in circulating IGFBP-3 levels is known to have a genetic basis, the specific loci involved are unknown. Direct sequencing of genomic DNA specimens from a multiethnic population identified several single nucleotide polymorphisms in the promoter region of IGFBP3. For the most common single nucleotide polymorphism (nucleotide -202) found to be in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, genotype was highly correlated to circulating level of IGFBP-3 in 478 men from the Physicians' Health Study. In vitro, we documented significantly higher promoter activity of the A allele at the -202 locus compared with the C allele, consistent with the relationship observed between genotype and circulating IGFBP-3 (AA > AC > CC). A positive correlation was observed between circulating retinol levels and circulating IGFBP-3 levels; subset analysis by genotype showed that this relationship was only present among individuals carrying an A allele at -202 (AA > AC > CC). Tall individuals or individuals with a body mass index of 27 or greater had levels of circulating IGFBP-3 that were significantly higher when they possessed at least one A allele (AA > AC > CC). The IGFBP3 promoter region deserves investigation as a locus where polymorphic variation occurs frequently and may influence GH responsiveness, somatic growth, and possibly cancer risk.

Genetic factors related to racial variation in plasma levels of insulin-like growth factor-1: implications for premenopausal breast cancer risk

The oral contraceptive pill is associated with a modest increase in the risk of early-onset breast cancer in the general population, but it is possible that the risk is higher in certain subgroups of women. The relative risk of breast cancer associated with oral contraceptive use has been reported to be higher for African-American women than for white women. African-American women also have a higher incidence of premenopausal breast cancer than white women. Circulating levels of insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-I) vary between ethnic groups and are positively associated with the risk of premenopausal breast cancer. In general, the plasma level of IGF-I is lower in women who take oral contraceptives than in women who do not. In an attempt to explain the observed ethnic difference in IGF-I levels with oral contraceptive use, we sought to identify polymorphic variants of genes that are associated with IGF-I levels and estrogen metabolism. We measured IGF-I and IGFBP-3 plasma levels in 503 nulligravid women between the ages of 17 and 35. All women filled out a questionnaire that included information about ethnic background and oral contraceptive use. Samples of DNA were used to genotype the women for known polymorphic variants in the IGF1, AIB1, and CYP3A4 genes. Black women had significantly higher mean IGF-I levels than white women (330 ng/ml versus 284 ng/ml; P = 0.001, adjusted for age and oral contraceptive use). IGF-I levels were significantly suppressed by oral contraceptives in white women (301 ng/ml versus 267 ng/ml; P = 0.0003), but not in black women. Among oral contraceptive users, the IGF-I level was positively associated with the absence of the IGF1 19-repeat allele (338 ng/ml versus 265 ng/ml; P = 0.00007), with the presence of the CYP3A4 variant allele (320 ng/ml versus 269 ng/ml; P = 0.01), and with the presence of the AIB1 26-repeat allele (291 ng/ml versus 271; P = 0.08). After adjusting for genotypes, ethnic group was no longer a significant predictor of the IGF-I level. IGF-I levels are higher among black than white women. Polymorphic variants in the CYP3A4, IGF1, and AIB1 genes are associated with increases in the plasma levels of IGF-I among oral contraceptive users and the variant alleles are much more common in black women than in white women. The high incidence of premenopausal breast cancer among black women may be mediated through genetic modifiers of circulating levels of IGF-I.